THE  LIBRARY  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

NORTH  CAROLINA 


;, 


ENDOWED  BY  THE 

DIALECTIC  AND  PHILANTHROPIC 

SOCIETIES 


630.62 
A278o 


ORIGINAL 
combhtntcatiobis 

MADE   TO 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY 

<&t  <Sotttf^@aroltua ; 

AND 

EXTRACTS 

FROM    SELECT   AUTHORS    ON 

AGRICULTURE. 

PUBLISHED  BY  ORDER  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


QUID  faciat  laetas  segetes:  quo  sidere  terrain 
Vertere,  Maecenas,  ulmisque  adjungere  vites* 
Conveniat :  quae  cura  boiun,  qui  cultus  habendo 
Sit  pecori:  atque  a  pi  bus  quanta  experientia  parcis 
Hinc  cenere  incipiam. . ——Virgil* 


CHARLESTON: 

PRINTED  BY  ARCHIBALD  E.  MILLER, 

No.  4  Broad-Street. 

— ^— 

1824. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


THE  Agricultural  Society  of  South-Caro- 
lina, anxious  for  the  extensive  diffusion  of  information, 
on  subjects  connected  with  their  Institution ;  and  aware 
that  much  of  this  information  is  contained  in  books 
written  by  various  authors  some  of  them  voluminous 
and  expensive,  and  comprehending  much  matter  not 
adapted  to  our  climate  aud  local  circumstances,  many 
of  them  also  being  in  foreign  languages;  have  judged 
it  expedient  to  publish  this  volume,  with  the  hope  that  it 
may  be  useful  to  those,  whom  want  of  leisure  or  other 
obstacles,  may  prevent  from  consulting  the  originals. 

And  as  the  approved  practices  of  Agriculture,  even 
in  our  own  State,  are  not  generally  known  in  others, 
such  communications  thereon,  as  the  Society  have 
received,  are  also  herein  published. 


REPORT. 


TV 

X  sIK  Committee  on  Communications  and  Foreign  Publications, 
beg  leave  to  submit  the  following  Report : — Your  Committee,  deeply 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  duties  assigned  to  them,  ad- 
dressed, at  a  very  early  period  after  their  appointment,  letters  to  all 
such  persons  as  from  their  success  in  Agriculture,  they  deemed  most 
likely  to  furnish  important  information,  on  the  most  practicable 
modes  of  rural  improvement  in  this  state.  It  is  with  regret,  that  your 
Committee  have  to  remark,  that  to  these  various  letters  very  few 
answers  have  been  returned.  This  circumstance,  whilst  it  gives 
evidence  of  a  degree  of  apathy,  which  cannot  be  too  deeply 
deplored,  and  which  is  unworthy  of  the  generous  spirit  of  agricultura- 
lists in  this  enlightened  age  and  country,  affords  but  poor  encou- 
ragement to  your  Committee  in  the  prosecution  of  their  future 
inquiries;  ai  the  same  time,  however,  that  they  censure  the  negligent, 
they  cannot  but  feel  gratified  at  the  interesting  communications  which 
they  have  received;  particularly  those  from  Messrs.  Myrick  and 
J.  H.  Alston,  on  the  subject  of  Rice  Planting,  The  extraordinary 
success,  which  has  attended  Mr.  Myrick's  plan,  wherever  he  has 
pursued  it,  proves  its  excellence,  and  shows  that  rice  planting  on 
some  of  our  tide  lands  has  been  brought  almost  to  the  acme  of 
perfection.  Deprived  in  a  great  degree  of  the  resource  of  original 
communications,  your  Committee  felt  compelled  to  look  abroad  for 
such  materials  in  foreign  works,  as  they  conceived  would  most  contri- 
bute to  carry  into  effect  the  design  of  the  Society,  in  forming  a 


354360 


IV  REPORT. 

collection  for  a  volume.  Even  here,  however,  they  have  been  much 
restricted  by  the  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  books  on  Agriculture, 
from  which  to  make  a  varied  selection.  As  utility  is  the  sole  object 
in  view,  they  have  been  guided  in  their  labors  by  the  practical  nature 
of  the  communications  which  they  have  adopted,  and  by  their 
adaptation  to  our  climate,  so  far  as  circumstances  would  permit  In 
their  extracts  from  foreign  works,  they  have  confined  themsel*  es 
chiefly  to  such  passages  as  illustrate  the  agriculture  of  India  and 
Italy. — As  irrigation  forms  an  essential  part  in  the  agricultural 
process  in  both  of  those  countries,  and  may  be  introduced  into  this, 
with  considerable  advantage,  your  Committee  have  thought  proper 
to  extract  from  Simond's  Picture  of  Tuscany,  a  detailed  description 
of  Les  Comblees,  or  Warping.  They  have  made  extracts  on  drai- 
ning from  Sir  John  Sinclair's  Cede  of  Agriculture;  and  on  the 
reclamation  and  draining  of  Marsh  Lands,  as  furnished  by  Messrs. 
Swartout  and  others.  They  have  selected  essays  on  flax,  hemp,  and 
other  articles,  which  they  conceive  will  be  useful  to  our  fellow- 
citizens.  They,  however,  beg  leave  to  refer  the  Society  for  particulars, 
to  a  table  of  contents, which  accompanies  this  Report. — Here,  perhaps, 
your  Committee  ought  to  stop,  but  they  cannot  omit  this  opportunity 
to  congratulate  the  Society  on  the  bright  prospects  which  seem  to 
open  on  their  labors.  It  must  be  cheering  to  every  member  to  find, 
that  the  apathy  which  too  long  enthralled  and  suspended  its  useful- 
ness, has  in  some  measure  been  overcome,  and  that  the  Society,  by 
its  anxious  and  unremitting  endeavours  to  promote  the  great  object  of 
its  institution,  will  deserve,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  meet,  the 
approbation  of  the  community. 

To  extend  our  usefulness,  however,  we  must  receive  more 
encouragement  than  we  have  hitherto  done;  although  we  hope, 
even  with  our  present  means,  to  do  much;  yet  we  cannot  ac- 
complish all  that  we  may  reasoablv  desire.  The  depressed  and 
wretched  condition  of  our  Agriculture  in  the  lower  districts,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  must  be  obvious  to  the  least  observing  traveller, 
and  is  well  calculated  to  excite  the  regret  of  the  patriot  and  friend 
to  improvement.  The  delapidated  state  and  condition  of  most  of 
our  farms  and  plantations,  furnish  abundant  evidence  that  there  is 
something  wanting  to  put  our  Agriculture  generally  upon  the  footing 
on  which  it  ought  to  stand.  Who,  in  passing  through  this  lower 
country,  can  fail  to  observe  the  sad  contrast  which  it  presents,  to 
what  it  did  thirty  or  forty  years  ago;  although  our  tide  lands  are 


i 


REPORT.  V 

unquestionably  better  cultivated  than  formerly,  and  our  sea  islands 
are  still  admirably  managed,  yet  no  other  parts  can  furnish  evidence 
of  improvement.  Favored  as  we  were,  for  a  long  time  by  extrava- 
gant prices  for  our  productions,  arising  from  the  introduction  of  an 
article  of  commerce  and  manufacture,  which  created  a  new  era  in 
our  Agriculture;  and  taking  advantage  of  a  state  of  things  in  Europe, 
to  which  we  cannot  expect  again  to  find  a  parallel ;  and  cultivating  a 
comparatively  virgin  soil,  the  agriculturalist  never  thought  of  change, 
nor  of  improvement. — Those  halcyon  days  are  now  however  passed, 
those  happy  times  are  changed,  and  we  must  change  with  them.  Par- 
taking in  the  general  embarrassment,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  us 
all,  to  make  every  practicable  effort  to  relieve  our  distresses  ;  and  how, 
let  us  ask,  can  this  be  done,  but  by  increased  production  and  dimi- 
nished consumption.  If  these  distresses  serve  to  call  forth  our 
latent  energies,  and  to  teach  us  frugality,  industry,  economy,  and  a 
better  mode  of  employing  our  means,  may  they  not  serve  as  harbin- 
gers, to  a  better  and  more  permanent  state  of  improvement.— 
Abounding  in  resources,  we  have  hitherto  either  lavished  or  neglected 
them. — But  we  forbear  to  trespass  on  the  province  of  the  political 
economist,  or  the  statesman — whilst  our  brethren  of  the  north,  are 
making  every  exertion  to  extend  the  knowledge  of  Agriculture,  by 
establishing  societies  in  every  section — whilst  Agricultural  Schools 
are  springing  up  in  various  parts  of  Europe  under  the  patronage  of 
government,  shall  it  be  reserved  for  us  alone,  to  leave  it  to  the 
guidance  of  ignorance,  prejudice  or  accident?  Are  we  not  aware, 
that  one  of  the  most  sterile  counties  in  England,  has  become 
one  of  the  most  fertile,  by  the  exertions  and  example  of  a  single 
individual,  (Mr.  Coke,  of  Holkham.)  If  all  classes  of  society, 
are  anxiously  striving  to  advance  their  interests — if  the  man- 
ufacturers have  succeeded  in  imposing  an  increased  and  odious 
tariff,  in  spite  of  the  eloquence  and  reasoning  of  our  faithful 
statesmen  and  representatives,  shall  we  be  contented  to  let  things 
remain  as  they  are,  and  folding  our  arms,  call,  like  the  carter  in  the 
fable,  upon  Hercules  for  relief?  No,  let  our  difficulties,  double  our 
exertions  and  our  energies ;  and  then  we  may  call,  with  the  hope  of 
success,  not  upon  Hercules,  but  upon  that  good  and  gracious  Being 
whom  we  trust  will  bless  our  exertions.  If  we  burthen  posterity  with 
our  debts,  let  us  strive  to  put  them  in  possession  of  the  best  means  of 
extricating  themselves;  to  this  we  are  prompted,  by  every  duty  and 
every  worthy  motive.— But  we  are  told  that  we  are  theorists,  and 


V!  REPORT. 

that  our  labors  are  of  no  importance  to  practical  men.  Were  these 
remarks  made  by  ignorant  persons,  and  not  repeated  by  those,  whose 
opinions  ought  to  have  weight  in  society,  we  would  not  condescend 
to  reply.  Do  we  not  promote  the  cause  of  Agriculture  by  associating 
together,  to  interchange  opinions  respecting  the  state  of  our  crops, 
and  dinerent  modes  of  culture,  adopted  in  different  neighborhoods  ? 
Do  we  not  know,  that  by  these  means  we  may  obtain  valuable 
information  trom  those,  who  will  communicate  their  knowledge 
orally,  but  cannot  be  prevailed  upon  to  commit  it  to  writing? 
Are  not  the  improvements  of  one  district  or  neighborhood,  kept 
secret  for  years,  for  want  of  this  channel  of  communication  ?  Is  it 
of  no  importance  that  the  youthful  agriculturalist  should  have  an 
opportunity  of  holding  converse  with  those,  who  have  devoted  their 
lives  to  the  pursuit  ?  Above  all,  do  we  not  effectually  promote  the 
cause,  by  giving  suitable  rewards  to  those,  who  shall  have  been 
successful,  in  any  department  of  Agricultural  industry  ?  It  is  in  this 
point  of  view  alone,  our  association  claims  regard — it  is  by  furnishing 
in  addition  to  the  stimulus  of  ambition,  a  handsome  pecuniary  reward, 
that  we  are  to  hope  for  greater  efforts,  from  those  whose  situation 
would  not  otherwise  enable  or  prompt  them  to  make  the  necessary 
exertions. 

Our  Society  by  offering  a  premium  to  the  manager  of  two  or 
more  plantations,  who  shall  be  recommended  for  his  skill,  fidelity 
and  humanity,  adopts  the  most  judicious  plan  for  the  encouragement 
of  that  valuable,  but  hitherto  neglected  class  of  men  ;  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  our  funds  will  not  permit  us  to  offer  a  greater 
reward.  It  is  true,  that  we  are  mostly  theorists,  and  from  the  inhos- 
pitable nature  of  our  climate,  we  are  likely  to  remain  so  ;  hut  does  it 
follow,  therefore,  that  we  can  do  no  good,  residing  at  the  seat  of 
intelligence,  with  facilities  of  communication  and  investigation,  which 
our  brethren  in  the  country,  removed  to  a  distance  from  each  other, 
cannot  possess — we  can  collect  and  waft  the  earliest  information  of 
improvement  to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  State.  If  properly 
encouraged  and  assisted,  we  may  be  made  the  organs  of  communica- 
tion of  the  latest  improvements  in  Europe  and  other  parts  of  the 
globe.  Enjoying  a  great  deal  of  leisure  during  the  summer  months, 
and  blessed  with  an  education  that  fits  us  for  the  task,  in  what  way 
could  we  employ  that  leisure  better,  than  in  collecting  such  interesting 
facts,  as  occur  in  the  agricultural  records  of  other  countries,  and  in 
perusing  the  works  of   those  scientific  men,  whose  labors  are  a 


REPORT.  VU 

blessing  to  every  country,  and  particularly  those  intrepid  travellers, 
who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  inquire  into  and  illustrate  the 
physical  resources  of  distant  nations.  We  do  not  pretend  to  deride 
practice,  far  from  it,  we  are  convinced  that  it  is  essential  to  success. 
But  practice  without  just  theory,  is  almost  as  bad  as  theory  without 
practice,  it  is  by  an  union  of  both,  that  the  most  beneficial  results  are 
to  be  produced — they  act  and  react  on  each  other. 

When  we  consider  the  im  riense  value  of  the  interests  at  stake, 
and  often  left  to  the  guidance  of  ignorance ;  surely  we  must  be 
deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of  dispelling  that  ignorance. 
This  is  only  effectually  to  be  done,  by  encourageing  our  overseers 
and  managers,  and  making  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  rationale 
of  the  profession  we  follow.  And  here  we  are  encouaged  by  the 
example  and  advice  of  some  of  the  greatest  patriots  that  ever  lived. 
Not  to  cite  the  names  of  those  who  are  gone  to  their  reward  in 
another  and  better  world,  we  could  mention  a  Madison,  a  Pickering, 
a  Peters,  and  others,  who  have  not  only  given  their  sanction  to  such 
associations  as  ours,  but  are  active  and  zealous  members.  Our 
Agriculture  cannot  be  improved,  so  long  as  it  does  not  excite  the 
attention  of  those  who  are  most  interested  in  its  success. 

"  It  is  (says  Sir  H.  Davy)  from  the  proprietors  of  land,  those 
who  are  fitted  by  their  education  to  form  enlightened  plans,  and  by 
their  fortunes  to  carry  such  plans  into  execution,  it  is  from  these,  that 
the  plans  of  improvement  must  flow  to  the  laboring  classes  of  the 
community ;  and  in  all  classes  the  benefit  is  mutual ;  for  the 
interest  of  the  tenant,  must  be  the  interest  of  the  proprietor.  The 
attention  of  the  laborei  will  be  more  minute,  and  he  will  expert 
himself  more  for  improvement,  when  he  is  certain  he  cannot  deceive 
his  employer,  and  has  a  conviction  of  the  extent  of  his  knowledge. 
Ignorance,  in  the  possessor  of  an  estate,  of  the  manner  in  which 
it  ought  to  be  treated,  generally  leads  either  to  inattention,  or  injudi- 
cious practices  in  the  tenant  or  Bailiff. — Agrum  pessimum  mulctari 
cujus  dominus  non  docet,  sed  audit  villicum. — Discoveries  made 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  are  not  merely  for  the  time  and 
country  in  which  they  are  developed,  but  they  may  be  considered 
as  extending  to  future  ages,  and  as  ultimately  tending  to  benefit  the 
whole  human  race,  as  affording  subsistence  for  generations  yet  to 
come  ;  as  multiplying  life,  and  not  only  multiplying  life,  but  likewise 
providing  for  its  enjoyment." 


Vlll  REPORT. 

The  afflictive  dispensations,  with  which  jt  has  pleased  divine  pro- 
vidence to  visit  us  during  the  present  year,  are  calculated  to  excite 
our  tenderest  sympathies.  Whilst  in  the  city,  the  arrow  flieth  by 
day  and  pestilence  walketh  in  darkness ;  whilst  we  have  been  fre- 
quently called  to  mourn  over  the  victims  of  ruthless  and  loathsome 
disease;  in  the  country,  our  dwellings  have  been  shattered  by  the 
raging  tempest,  and  the  hopes  of  the  farmer  have  been  blasted  by 
the  destroying  flood.  Indeed,  unusual  distress  prevails  throughout 
the  land,  and  we  may  truly  say,  republica  est  afflicta.  Bowing  with 
becoming  submission  to  the  divine  will,  let  us  be  thankful  to  the  God 
of  mercy,  that  there  is  one  drop,  one  cordial  drop  of  hope,  to  cheer  us 
amidst  our  distresses,  and  that  we  have  still  reserved  to  us  our  intelli- 
gence and  industry.  The  genius  of  Carolina,  beholds  with  pride  and 
exultation,  the  rapid  strides  with  which  her  sister  states  are  marching 
to  the  complete  fulfilment  of  the  high  destinies  which  seem  to  await 
them — she  hopes  that  the  sun  of  prosperity,  will  long  shine  on  them , 
and  if  she  pauses  for  a  moment  to  sigh  at  her  present  condition, 
knowing  her  resources,  she  springs  forward  with  redoubled  energy, 
and  calls  upon  her  sons  to  assist  her  in  developing  them — surely  she 
will  not  call  in  vain. — Bound  to  her,  by  the  ties  of  affection  and 
gratitude,  let  her  misfortunes  strengthen  our  attachment — and 
whilst  we  venerate  the  last  sentiments  that  faltered  on  the  qui- 
vering lips  of  the  illustrious  Pitt — Oh  my  Country!  Let  us 
never  forget  the  dying  words  of  Father  Paul — esto  perjpetua. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

WM.  WASHINGTON. 

Chairman. 


amrkston,  (8.  C)  October,  1824. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS; 


Page 
LETTER  I.— General  Thomas  Pinckney  on  Embankment  of  Tide 

Lands,  * 

II.— General  Thomas  Pinckney  on  Salt  Spots  in  Marshes,  10 
III.—                ditto          on  Method  of  Puddling  for  Canals,         16 

IV. — Jordan  Myrick,  on  Rice  Planting,  IS 

V.—            ditto            on        ditto.  21 
VI.— John  Middleton  on  the  Culture  of  Rice,   broad 

cast,  23 

VII  —  John  H.  Alston  on  Rice  Planting,  25 

VIII.— John  Middleton  on  the  Culture  of  the  Sweet  Potatoe,  28 

IX.—            Ditto         on  the  Tuscany  Cattle,  29 

X.— Wai.  R.  Bull,  on  the  Culture  of  the  Sw  eet  Potatoe,  31 

XI. — Edward  Brown  on  the  importance  of  raising  Sheep,  34 

XII.  -Robert  Ralston  on  Cotton  Planting,  41 

XIII.— John  S.  Bellinger  on  Corn  Planting,  44 

XIV  —Charles  E.  Rowand  on  Rice  Planting,  48 

ART.  15.     Report  on  the  Decorticator,  51 
16.     Sinclair  on  the  means  of  Improving  the  Agriculture  of  a 

country,  57 
17      Preliminary  points  to  be  considered  before  a  Farmer  can 

undertake  the  occupation  of  a  Farm,  72 

18.  Rules  to  be  observed  regarding  the  improvement  of 

Waste  i,ands,  84 

19.  On  the  Advantages  of  Draining,  85 

20.  On  Manures,  91 

21.  On  Paring  and  Burning,  $6 

22.  On  Flooding  Land,  99 

23.  On  Warping  Land,  101 

24.  On  Ploughing,  104 

25.  On  Harrowing,  108 

26.  On  Transplanting  Crops,  109 

27.  On  Reaping,  110 

28.  On  the  various  purposes  to  which  Straw  is  applicable,  113 

29.  On  Private  Kitchen  Gardens,  120 

30.  On  the  most  desireable  qualities  of  Live  Stock,  121 

31.  On  the  Principles  of  Improved  Breeding,  127 

32.  On  the  proper  Management  of  Stock  in  general,  181 

33.  On  the  Embankment  of  Rivers,  133 

34.  On  the  Cultivation  of  Rice  in  India  by  Logaux  de  Flaix,  149 

35.  On  Agriculture  in  the  Plains  of  Tuscany,  by  Simonde,  153 

36.  On  the  Philosophy  of  Vegetation,  by  Fourcroy,  160 

37.  On  the  first  Principles  of  Agriculture,  170 
38      On  Reclaiming  Salt  Marshes,  174 

39.  On  Cotton — nature  of  soil,  mode  of  planting,  he,  181 

40.  On  Manures,  185 

41.  On  Oyster- Shells,  as  a  Manure,  187 

B 


%  CONTENTS. 

Page; 

ART.  42.    On  Flemish  Husbandry,  188 

43.    On  the  Agriculture  of  Tuscany,  193 

44     On  the  manner  of  treating  Flax  in  Ireland,  19ft 

45.  On  the  treatment  of  Flax  in  the  Netherlands,  199 

46.  On  Salt,  as  a  Manure,  206 

47.  On  the  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass,  205 

48.  On  Corrections  of  ill-constructed  Soils,  20ft 

49.  On  Millet,  208 

50.  On  work  Horses,  and  manner  of  feeding,  209 

51.  On  the  Dairy,  in  answers,  by  Mr.  Van  de  Poes,  210 
62.  On  the  Feld-Pea,  211 
53      On  Oat  Pasture,  and  Improvement  of  Soils,  212 

54.  On  Manure,  from  Dr.  Cooper's  Domestic  Encyclopedia,  219 

55.  On  Lime    from              ditto                 ditto  234 

56.  On  Soil,  by  T.  Pickering,  238 

67.  On  Corn,  by  Dr  Cooper,  242 

68.  On  Chicorium  Intubus,  by  ditto,  250 
59     On  Cabbage,                  by  ditto,  251 

60.  On  Buckwheat,               by  ditto,  254 

61.  On  Boorcole.                  by  ditto,  25*7 

62.  On  the  Common  Vetch,  by  ditto,                                  •  258 

63.  On  Rice,  by  ditto,  263 
64      On  the  Cultivation  of  a  Farm  in  Italy,  by  Rigby,  268 

65.  On  the  Agriculture  of  India,   by  Buchanan,  277 

66.  On  the  Potatoe,  from  Dr.  Cooper's  Dom.  Ency.  294 

APPENDIX. 
LETTER  XV. — Whitemarsh  B.  Seabrook's  answers  on  Cotton  Planting,     301 

XVI on  Guinea  Corn,  309 

XV H  — John  Middleton  on  Lime,  312 

XVUI  —John  Middleton  on  the  Sweet  Potatoe,  215 

XIX  — Jordan  Myrick's  answers  on  Rice  Planting*,  214 


Birectionsfor  the  Bindet** 

jftace  the  Plate,  Describing  LmbankmentS,  at  page  5. 
.  $&d  the  Plate,  on  Fascines,  at  page  8. 


ERRATA. 

We  have  noticed  several  typographical  errors,  which  must  be  left  for  cor- 
rection to  the  candid  and  intelligent  reader. 

Page  14 — line    8,  for  acres    read  barrels. 
"     19 — line  15,  for  without  read  with. 
"     32 — line    7,  insert  be,  after  will. 
"    37 — line  20,  for  unequal  read  unequalled. 
"     39 — line  26,  for  William  Broicne,  read  Edward  Brown. 
"     79 — line  25,  for  previous  read  pervious. 
"    88 — line  14,  2d  part,  for  pouchy  read  poachy. 
"     88 — line  31,         "         for  require  read  acquire. 
u     91 — line    5,  2d  part,  for  measures  read  manures. 
"     92 — line    2,  for  duftg  read  dung. 
"     92 — line  14,  for  indisputable  read  indisputably. 
u     94 — line  31,  for  rods  read  roads. 
"  101 — line  34,  for  expese  read  expense. 
"  107 — line  15,  for  measures  read  manures. 
*•  107 — line  19,  of  Note,  for  retracted  read  protracted 
ri  128— line  24,  for  herbs  read  herds. 


ORIGINAL  LETTERS. 


LETTER  I. 


On  the  Embankment  of  Tide  Lands, 

To  the  President  and  Members  of  the  Agricultural  > 
Society  of  South-Carolina.  $ 

A  HE  construction  of  banks,  capable  of  protecting 
from  inundation  the  low  grounds  adjacent  to  our  rivers, 
being  indispensable  for  the  secure  cultivation  of  the 
most  fertile  portions  of  our  territory,  I  have  thought  it 
might  be  acceptable  to  submit  to  the  society,  such  ideas 
as  theory  and  practice  have  suggested  to  me,  in  the 
course  of  long  attention  to  this  subject.  And  being 
of  opinion  that  the  form  of  the  bank  generally  used 
among  us,  is  not  the  most  advantageous,  I  herewith 
offer  a  drawing  of  the  section  of  the  bank  now,  and 
for  many  years,  generally  adopted  in  the  maritime  parts 
of  our  state,  marked  No.  1,  and  of  that  which  is 
thought  to  be  an  improvement  upon  it,  marked  No.  2, 
with  the  view  of  explaining  my  ideas,  aided  by  the 
comparison. 

1 


2  ON  THE  EMBANKMENT 

The  properties  of  a  good  bank  may  be  assumed  to 
be,  strength  to  resist  the  force  of  water;  tightnes  or 
security  from  leakage;  durability;  cheapness  of  con- 
struction; and  facility  of  repair.  An  examination  of 
the  form  of  these  two  banks,  will  enable  us  to  judge, 
which  has  the  superiority  in  these  points.  It  will 
thence  appear,  that  while  the  rising  water  must  press 
against  No.  1,  it  lies  in  a  great  measure  upon  No.  2, 
thereby  consolidating  rather  than  weakening  it.  And 
as  the  stability  of  all  elevations  mainly  depends  on  the 
extent  of  the  foundation  exceeding  that  of  the  super- 
structure; and  the  base  of  No.  2  being  26  feet,  while 
that  of  No.  1  is  but  12,  the  advantage  derived  by  the 
former  will  be  in  proportion  to  these  numbers;  so  that 
while  No  1  could  only  resist  a  pressure  equal  to  12,  No. 
2  could  support  one  of  26:  this  has,  therefore,  more 
than  double  the  stability  of  No.  1.  And  in  case  of  the 
water  being  much  agitated  by  violent  wind,  the  surges 
would  dash  nearly  at  right  angles,  against  the  almost 
perpendicular  side  of  No.  1  ;  which  must  be  greatly 
injured  thereby  ;  while  the  inclined  position  of  No.  2, 
offering  less  direct  opposition,  the  waves  would  flow 
up  it  like  the  surf  oh  the  sea  shore,  and  retire  without 
injuring  it.  In  case  also  of  a  rapid  movement  of  the 
stream,  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  bank,  it  would 
easily  cut  into  and  undermine  the  summit  of  No.  1, 
while  it  would  only  extend  itself  up  the  easy  slope  of 
No.  2.  The  first  property  therefore  of  strength,  to 
resist  the  action  of  water,  appears  to  be  in  favor  of 
No.  2. 

With  respect  to  the  ability  to  resist  leakage,  the 
advantage  seems  to  be  on  the  same  side,  because  it  is 
evidently  more  easy  for  water  to  percolate  through  a 
stratum  of  twelve,  than  of  twenty-six  feet.  But  to 
exemplify  this  with  more  precision,  let  us  suppose  that 
the  water  has  risen  four  feet  perpendicular  over  the 
surface  on  the  outside  of  both  banks,  this  water,  in  its 
full  depth,  would  come  in  contact  with  No.  1 ;  and  as 


OF  TIDE  LANDS.  O 

water  acts  equally  on  all  sides,  with  a  force  propor- 
tioned to  its  height  or  depth,  it  would  here  press  with 
the  strength  of  a  column  four  feet  high,  in  forcing  the 
fluid  through  the  pores  or  interstices  of  the  twelve  feet 
of  earth,  which  compose  this  bank  in  its  widest  dimen- 
sion :  but  where  No.  2,  is  only  twelve  feet  thick,  the 
bank  is  so  elevated,  that  the  height  of  the  column  of 
water  on  it,  is  but  one  foot  and  an  half,  and  its  power 
of  forcing  through  this  equal  stratum  of  earth,  would 
be  in  proportion  thereto:  consequently  No.  1,  would 
be  more  liable  to  leak  than  No.  2,  in  the  proportion 
that  four  bears  to  one  and  an  half,  or  the  advantage 
that  No.  2,  has  over  No.  1,  as  respects  freedom  from 
leaks  or  tightness,  is  as  eight  to  three. 

With  respect  to  durability,  by  fitness  to  resist  the 
other  destructive  operations,  to  which  banks  may  be 
exposed  :  violent  rain,  the  trampling  of  heavy  animals, 
and  perforations  made  by  small  ones,  may  be  considered 
as  the  principal  causes  of  such  destruction.  Now  it  is 
evident,  that  rain  water  would  descend  with  more 
velocity  and  consequently  with  more  force  down  the 
side  of  No.  1,  than  of  No.  2,  and  would  carry  with  it 
more  of  the  earth  of  which  it  is  composed. 

It  is  also  apparent,  that  the  materials  of  the  surface  of 
these  banks,  which  might  be  displaced  by  the  trampling 
of  heavy  animals,  would  more  readily  roll  down  the 
precipitous  side  of  one,  than  the  easy  slope  of  the  other. 
Crayfish,  also  fidlers  and  snakes,  having  more  than 
double  the  distance  to  travel  through  it,  would  be  best 
opposed  by  the  widest  foundation.  To  which  may 
be  added  that  grass  which  grows  best  on  the  flattest 
surface,  affords  additional  security  to  the  surface  of 
No.  2. 

It  appears  then  that  with  respect  to  the  qualities  of 
strength,  tightness  and  durability,  the  form  of  the  bank 
recommended  has  the  advantage. 

In  considering  the  cheapness  of  construction,  it 
remains  to  be  proved,  that  these  advantages,  however 


4  ON  THE  EMBANKMENT 

important,  do  not  cost  more  than  they  are  worth ;  by 
shewing  that  the  labor  employed  in  constructing  No.  2, 
does  not  far  exceed  that  of  No.  1. 

On  reference  to  the  numbers  which  designate  the 
dimensions  of  the  ditches,  A  and  B,   it  will  be  found 
that  any  given  length  of  each  contains  the  same  num- 
ber of  cubical  feet  of  the  earth  which  is  to  be  removed 
to  form  the  corresponding  bank :  so  far  they  are  equal  p 
but  it  is  evident,   that  it   requires  much  more  labor  to 
raise  a  weight  perpendicularly,  than  to  remove  it  hori- 
zontally; the  dififerenee  of  the  forces  necessary  to  be 
applied  in  the  two  cases  might  be  ascertained  from  the 
principles  of  gravity  ;  but  it  may  be  sufficient  here  to 
assume,  (what  an  experienced  spadesman  will  scarcely 
controvert,)  that  it  is  at  least  as  easy  to  pitch  a  spade- 
ful of  earth,  ten   feet   horizontally,   as  to  raise  and 
deliver  it  from  a  depth  of  five  feet.     The  usual  day's 
work  of  one  hand  in  the  ditch  being  ten  feet  in  length, 
it  is  evident  that  the  laborer  must  raise  one  hundred 
cubical   feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  five  feet  to 
the  surface;  while  the  laborer  in  the  ditch  B,  in  the 
same  length  of  task,   would   have  to   raise   only  ten 
cubical  feet:  this  is  an  advantage  in  his  favor  of  ten 
for  one ;  he  will,  however,  have  to  remove  this  earth 
twenty  feet,  while  the  laborer  in  A,  will  on  an  average 
have  only  a  distance  of  five  feet,  to  convey  his  horizon- 
tally to   its  edge ;  this  therefore,    is  an  advantage  in 
favor  of  A,  of  four  for  one ;  which  being  substracted 
from  the  ten  for  one,  gained  by  B  in  the  perpendicular 
lift,  still  leaves  the  advantage  to  B,  of  six  for  one. 
This  advantage  of  course  diminishes  as  the  surface  is 
approached,  and  on  account  of  the  form  of  B,  this 
calculation  cannot  be  precisely  exact;  but  in  practice 
the  facility  of  execution  on  the  whole,  is  so  decidedly 
in  favor  of  B,  that  I  have  always  found,  that  fifteen 
feet  in  length  of  this   ditch  could   be  executed  in  the 
day,  while  only  ten  feet  of  the  former  is  the  usual  task. 
This,  it  must  be  observed,  relates  only  to  so  much  of 


\  !&       / 


OF  TIDE  LANDS.  O 

the  bank,  as  is  comprised  between  the  ditch  and  the 
dotted  line 5.  To  complete  this  bank,  a  small  inner 
ditch  is  formed,  (marked  C),  which  affords  the  earth 
for  the  interior  talus,  and  at  the  same  time  serves  to 
drain  the  field.  Thirty  feet  of  this  ditch  is  the  usual 
day's  task  :  one  laborer  then,  with  one  woman  to  put 
up  the  bank,  will,  in  two  days,  execute  thirty  feet  of 
the  exterior  ditch  and  bank,  and  in  another  day,  thirty 
feet  of  the  corresponding  inner  ditch  and  bank;  while 
in  the  same  three  days,  the  laborer  in  A,  with  his  assist- 
ing woman,  will  have  performed  no  more  than  the 
same  length.  The  labor  then  of  construction  is  equal, 
and  if  the  bank  No.  2,  is  better  than  No.  1,  it  is  of 
course  cheaper. 

With  respect  to  the  last  property,  facility  of  repair, 
this  must  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  having  a  supply 
of  materials  necessary  for  the  purpose,  within  a  conve- 
nient distance;  and  this  is  furnished  in  a  short  time, 
by  the  exterior  ditch  B,  which  is  speedily  filled  by  the 
earth  of  alluvion  ;  which  consisting  generally  of  clay, 
affords  a  supply  of  the  best  material,  within  a  conve- 
nient distance;  while  the  ditch  A,  being  within  the 
banks  and  kept  more  generally  dry,  affords  fewer 
opportunities  for  the  deposit  of  the  sediment  of  water: 
and  even  if  it  had  an  equal  advantage  in  that  respect, 
the  ditch  B,  being  double  the  width  of  A,  would  of 
course  receive  double  the  quantity  of  alluvium. 

I  have  thus  endeavored  to  show  that,  the  bank  No.  2, 
is  superior  in  strength,  tightness,  durability,  cheapness 
of  construction,  and  facility  of  repair  to  those  in  gene- 
ral use  ;  and  having  many  years  experienced  its  efficacy 
I  can  safely  recommend  its  adoption.  I  will  now 
proceed  to  describe  the  mode  of  executing  it.  The 
ground  being  marked  off  by  stakes  as  usual,  the  ditcher 
takes  his  station  in  his  task  on  the  outward  line  of  the 
ditch,  which  is  usually  placed  within  a  tew  feet  of  the 
river;  he  there  digs  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
throwing  each  spadeful  as  he  proceeds  as  far  as  he  can, 


D  ON  THE  EMBANKMENT 

toward  the  inner  line  of  the  ditch,  where  a  woman,  his 
partner  in  the  task,  is  stationed ;  who  removes  with 
her  hoe  to  the  inner  part  of  the  bank,  the  earth  pitched 
to  her,  by  the  spadesman  :  and  the  gentle  acclivity  of 
this  bank  rendering  it  unnecessary  that  the  excavated 
earth  should  remain  to  become  more  dry,  before  it  is 
formed  into  the  bank,  as  is  the  case  in  the  common 
mode,  it  is  at  once  placed  in  its  proper  position.  After 
the  spadesman  has  attained  his  full  depth  on  the  out- 
ward line,  he  proceeds  inward,  observing  to  dimlninsh 
the  depth  according  to  his  progress;  this  part  of  the 
operation  requires  the  most  attention,  but  practice  soon 
renders  it  easy;  and  after  the  excavation  is  roughly 
made?  a  straight  rod,  laid  on  the  surface,  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  enables  the  laborer,  to  give 
it  thereby,  the  proper  form;  a  similar  process  serves 
for  trimming  the  bank.  It  may  be  observed,  that  by 
thus  proceeding,  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  task  is 
executed  first,  while  the  laborer  is  unfatigued  ;  and  the 
latter  part  of  it  requires  so  little  exertion,  that  he  is 
much  encouraged  by  finding  his  difficulties  diminish  as 
he  proceeds:  while  in  the  ditch  A,  the  reverse  occurs, 
and  the  workman  finds  towards  the  close  of  the  day, 
that  the  most  toilsome  part  of  his  task  is  still  to  be 
executed. /This  moral  advantage,  will  be  properly 
estimated  by  those  who  have  observed  how  much  the 
encouragement  of  hope  facilitates  labor.  / 
i  f  It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  the  bank  here  re- 
(  commended,  is  drawn  under  the  impression,  that  it  is 
sufficiently  elevated  to  keep  out  the  highest  spring  tides ; 
h  where  that  is  not  the  case,  a  greater  elevation  must  be 
4  given;  observing  always  to  have  four  feet  of  base  for 
one  of  height.  \  And  where  from  freshets,  or  any  other 
cause,  banks  are  liable  to  be  frequently  overflowed,  a 
much  wider  inner  talus  should  be  formed.  In  our 
high  river  swamps,  I  should  be  of  opinion,  that  the 
inner  ought  to  be  equal  to  the  outer  slope. 


OF  TIDE  LANDS.  / 

As  connected  with  this  subject,  of  the  construction 
and  repair  of  banks,  I  will  take  the  liberty  of  describ- 
ing the  mode  which  I  have  found  most  effectual  in 
Securing  the  creeks,  which  frequently  intersect  the 
course  of  the  bank;  as  well  as  in  stopping  any  con- 
siderable breaches,  which  may  be  made  by  storms, 
freshets,  &c.  The  usual  mode  in  this,  our  timber 
country,  is  to  drive  down  several  pair  of  large  posts 
across  the  breach,  parrallel  with  the  sides  of  the  stan- 
ding bank,  and  to  unite  the  tops  of  each  pair,  by  a 
cross  timber  morticed  on  their  tops;  then  driving  a  row 
of  large  and  strong  puncheons  into  each  side  of  the 
breach,  supported  by  horizontal  timbers,  which  rest 
against  the  cap'd  posts;  the  earth  to  form  the  bank  is 
then  thrown  between  these  rows,  and  kept  in  its  place 
by  the  puncheons.  This  makes  a  tolerable  temporary 
stoppage;  but  as  the  puncheons  cannot  form  a  tight 
joint,  the  earth  piled  perpendicularly  within  them,  is 
constantly  escaping:  and  the  wood  which  is  exposed 
to  be  wet  and  dry  alternately,  twice  in  twenty-four 
hours,  speedily  rots,  and  no  longer  affords  security  to 
the  bank. 

The  model  recommend,  is  to  use  fascines  instead  of 
timber;  for  this  purpose,  a  number  of  them,  propor- 
tionate to  the  size  of  the  creek  or  breach,  are  prepared : 
they  are  composed  of  bushes,  or  the  smallest  branches 
of  trees,  cut  into  lengths  of  six  feet;  a  sufficient 
quan  ty  being  placed  in  each,  to  form  when  well  com- 
pressed, a  diameter  of  a  foot;  and  firmly  bound  in  the 
middle,  by  a  vine  or  by  a  switch  of  white  oak,  ozier, 
or  other  tough  wood,  each  about  the  size  of  a  man's 
ringer,  and  six  or  seven  feet  long :  a  noose  or  loop  is 
made  at  one  end  of  this  bind,  which  is  passed  under 
the  middle  of  the  fascine,  and  the  other  end  being 
brought  round,  is  passed  through  the  loop  and  drawn 
tight,  the  laborer  pressing  hiskn^e  upon  it  to  compress 
it  strongly;  the  bind  is  then  passed  again  round  the 
fascine  and  its  end  inserted  carefully  under  the  noose, 


8  ON  THE  EMBANKMENT 

to  prevent  it  from  slipping :  a  strong  stake  of  about 
two  inches  diameter,  and  six  or  seven  feet  long,  is 
prepared  for  each  fascine;  and  a  quantity  of  earth, 
commensurate  with  the  width  and  depth  of  the  creek 
or  breech,  being  prepared  at  hand  ;  a  row  of  fascines 
is  laid  across  the  aperture  in  a  line  parallel  with  the 
exterior  talus  of  the  banks,  in  the  following  manner: 
a  fascine  is  placed  firmly  down,  with  the  but  inside, 
perpendicular  to  the  bank,  the  end  of  which  it  joins, 
and  a  stake  is  driven  through  it  passing  below  the 
upper  side,  and  above  the  lower  side  of  the  bind;  this 
should  not  be  driven  perpendicularly,  but  with  the 
head  inclining  from  the  bank,  near  which  it  is  placed 
toward  the  opposite  side,  in  the  direction  which  the 
row  is  to  take;  it  must  not  be  driven  entirely  in,  but 
the  end  must  be  left  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  fas- 
cine; another  fascine  is  then  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
first,  and  secured  by  the  stake  in  the  same  inclined 
position,  and  the  row  is  continued  across  until  it 
reaches  the  bank  on  the  opposite  side:  here  a  fascine 
must  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  last  of  the  first  row, 
but  drawn  back  so  much  as  to  let  the  bind  of  the 
second  tier  lie  close  behind  that  of  the  first;  this  is 
secured  by  a  stake  driven  into  the  ground,  through  both 
fascines,  inserted  through  the  bind  of  the  upper,  but 
driven  in  a  direction  exactly  opposite  to  the  stakes  of 
the  first  row;  whereby  their  ends  cross  each  other  in 
the  form  of  the  letter  X,  and  the  two  tiers  are  firmly 
bound  to  the  bottom:  this  row  is  continued  across  as 
the  first;  and  as  many  more  added,  as  the  depth  may 
require:  but  when  they  have  risen  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  surface,  or  so  much  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure 
the  bank;  long  fascines  or  saucisson,  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  feet  in  length,  with  a  strong  bind  every  three  or 
four  feet,  are  placed  across  the  middle  of  the  other 
fascines  from  bank  to  bank,  and  well  staken  down,  the 
more  firmly  to  bind  the  whole  together:  this  is  called 
the  strong  piece.     When  the  outward  side  of  the  breach 


■»'  >7»*»t.^/.''VvV 


/:/^  ^W    ^/'-/^^d  /^W  y-J/^Y-y  yj. 


C  t    S//y/      i, 


OF  TIDE  LANDS.  ^ 

is  thus  secured,  a  similar  baricade  is  made  on  the  inside, 
or  if  workmen  are  plenty,  both  may  be  carried  on  at 
the  same  time;  observing  that  the  clear  distance  be- 
tween them  should  be  equal  to  the  base  of  the  bank. 
The  earth  is  then  thrown  in,  and  the  bank  formed; 
covering  the  top  of  the  fascines  also  with  earth. — As 
it  frequently  happens  that  the  cavity,  even  at  low  water, 
(at  which  time  this  work  ought  always  to  be  begun,) 
is  so  deep,  that  the  fascines  cannot  be  laid  dry  on  the 
bottom,  two  fascines  or  as  many  more  as  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  reach  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  are  fixed  through  their  binds  on  one  stake,  which 
is  driven  down  as  before  described,  and  the  fascines 
pushed  or  trod  down  firmly  to  the  bottom:  it  will  of 
course  be  necessary  to  use  longer  and  stronger  stakes 
for  this  purpose.  An  expert  laborer  ought  to  make 
from  sixty  to  eighty  fascines  a  day ;  and  when  this  work 
is  properly  directed,  it  may  be  performed  with  less 
labor  and  more  expedition  than  with  posts,  caps  and 
puncheons. 

I  am  indebted  for  the  above  described  mode  of 
embankment,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of  fascines,  to  the 
late  Mr.  Van  Hasselt  an  intelligent  citizen  of  Holland, 
who,  having  joined  the  patriotic  party,  during  the  dis- 
turbances which  took  place  in  that  country,  soon  after 
the  close  of  our  revolutionary  contest,  was  obliged  to 
abandon  his  country  and  took  refuge  in  this  state. 
He  died  here,  at  an  advanced  age,  regretted  by  all  who 
knew  him,  after  having  imparted  much  valuable  infor- 
mation on  agricultural  subjects. 

Nearly  forty  years  have  elapsed  since  this  gentleman 
attended  in  person  and  instructed  my  people  to  stop  a 
breach  in  a  bank,  situated  on  quicksand,  which  had 
previously  occasioned  much  unsuccessful  labor;  and 
which  has  ever  since  been  perfectly  strong.  This 
circumstance  is  mentioned  to  prove  the  efficacy  and 
durability  of  the  work;  and  as  I  have  since  stopped  a 
considerable  number  of  large  creeks,  and  repaired 
2 


10  ON  SALT  SPOTS 

many  breaches  by  this  mode,  I  do  not  recommend  it 
without  sufficient  experience. 

A  drawing,  representing  a  breach,  during  the  opera- 
tion of  being  thus  stoppped,  is  herewith  presented. 
THOMAS  PINCKNEY. 


LETTER  II. 


On  Salt  Spots  in  Marshes. 


A  HIS  society  having  resolved  to  endeavour  to  circu- 
late extensively,  information  derived  from  individual 
experience  on  agricultural  subjects,  it  becomes  pecu- 
liarly incumbent  on  its  members,  to  promote  this 
intention,  by  communicating  facts  occurring  in  then- 
practice,  which  have  proved  beneficial  to  any  branch 
of  their  rural  concerns. 

Under  this  impression,  I  beg  leave  to  submit  to  the 
society,  the  result  of  an  experiment  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  the  brackish  marshes  of  our  sea 
coast,  by  reclaiming  the  salt  spots  with  which  this  kind 
of  land  is  usually  infested. 

To  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  lands  of  this 
description,  it  may  be  necessary  to  premise,  that  they 
are  situated  on  such  parts  of  our  rivers,  within  the 
reach  oi  the  tide,  where  the  water  is  generally  fresh,  but 
at  spring  tides,  or  with  the  prevalence  of  eastwardly 
winds  it  become  salt  or  highly  brackish.     The  margins 


IN  MARSHES.  11 

of  these  lands  bounding  on  the  water  courses,  are  so 
high,  as  not  to  be  covered  by  usual  tides;  but  in  the 
cases  abovementioned,  the  water  flows  over  them, 
covering  the  whole  marsh,  which,  on  the  tides  reced- 
ing, is  again  left  dry ;  except  those  parts  which  lying 
lower  than  the  margins,  the  water  cannot  return  by 
that  course ;  much  of  it,  however,  escapes  through 
the  pores  of  the  soil ;  but  the  lowest  parts,  or  those 
where  the  soil  is  of  the  most  impervious  quality  still 
retain  it.  These,  in  fact,  become  salt  ponds,  wherein 
evaporation  leaves  a  residum,  consisting  of  marine 
and  glauber  salts,  &c.  such  as  is  found  in  the  pans  of 
salt  works.  The  soil,  in  these  places  of  course,  be- 
comes barren ;  and  the  proprietor,  after  being  at  the 
expense  of  banking  and  draining  the  marsh,  finds  him- 
self in  possession  of  land,  the  better  part  of  which  is 
of  uncommon  fertility,  but  a  certain  portion  of  it  worse 
than  useless,  on  account  of  the  greater  extent  of  banks, 
ditches  and  drains  necessary  to  be  kept  up  ;  and  by 
adding  to  the  brackish  quality  of  the  water  circulating 
through  the  drains,  and  in  the  soil.  Of  nearly  four 
hundred  acres  of  this  land  which  I  have  brought  into 
culture,  about  one  tenth  consisted  of  salt  spots.  It 
was  evident,  that  as  they  were  already  banked  and 
drained,  by  divesting  them  of  their  noxious  qualities,  I 
should  at  once  obtain  land  equal  to  good  tide  swamp, 
equal  from  130  to  150  dollars  per  acre.  I,  therefore, 
attempted  to  effect  it  by  various  means ;  and  it  may  be 
useful  to  relate,  as  a  warning,  the  attempts  which 
were  abortive,  as  well  as  that  which  finally  succeed- 
ed. As  water  will  hold  in  solution  a  certain  quantity 
of  salt,  my  first  idea  was,  that  by  frequently  introduc- 
ing fresh  water,  and  letting  it  flow  off  when  saturated 
with  the  salt,  I  should  in  time  get  rid  of  it.  In  order 
to  do  this  effectually,  particular  attention  was  paid  to 
the  ditches,  which  surrounded  the  fields,  and  the 
drains  which  intersected  them :  the  former  were  eight 
feet  wide  and  five  deep,  and  the  drains  three  and  an 


12  ON  SALT  SPOTS 

half  feet  deep,  were  in  general  cut  at  fifty  feet  distance 
from  each  other.  By  this  means,  free  ingress  and 
egress  was  given  to  the  fresh  water  taken  in  at  plea- 
sure through  good  flood-gates  and  trunks :  and  the  land 
being  cultivated  in  rice,  this  process  of  admitting  and 
changing  the  water,  was  of  course  continued,  while  the 
land  was  under  cultivation. 

Finding  after  several  years  very  little  improvement, 
I  tried  the  effect  of  animal  manure  in  different  quanti- 
ties, in  various  spots  ;  this  was  sometimes  carried  and 
spread  on  the  land,  but  it  was  principally  effected  by 
making  cowpens  and  hog  sties  on  the  land,  but  equal- 
ly without  success. 

I  then  tried  the  effects  of  burning  the  surface,  by 
spreading  on  it,  and  setting  fire  to  stubble,  brought 
from  the  adjoining  parts ;  but  this  appeared  to  render 
it  more  inveterately  sterile. 

At  length,  I  determined  to  try  the  effect  of  lime, 
and  that  succeeded  to  my  wish.  In  the  spring  of  1821 , 
in  a  field  much  infested  by  salt  spots,  I  selected  an 
acre  of  the  worst  of  it  which  had  been  previously  dug 
by  the  hoe,  and,  just  before  planting,  oyster-shell-lime, 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  was 
strewed  on  it,  and  hoed  in ;  the  remainder  of  the  field 
was  left  unmanured.  The  rice  on  this  acre  came  up 
well,  and  instead  of  turning  red  and  dying,  as  former- 
ly, when  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  it  stood  well 
through  the  season,  and  produced  as  good  a  crop  as 
the  best  parts  of  the  field,  while  other  salt  spots  there- 
in produced  nothing. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  in  the  next  year,  (1822) 
I  burned  several  kilns  of  oyster-shell-lime,  and  strewed 
nearly  two  thousand  bushels  over  as  many  salt  spots 
as  that  would  cover,  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  bushels 
per  acre.  The  success  this  year  was  similar  to  the 
former.  In  the  present  year,  I  have  spread  lime 
wherever  the  land  appeared  at  all  effected  by  the  salts 
varying  the  quantity,  according  to  the  degrees  of  steri- 


IN  MARSHES.  13 

lity,  so  as  to  allow  only  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  where 
the  vegetation  seemed  to  be  but  slightly  impaired. 
There  has  been  no  indication  of  any  salt  spots  during 
the  growth  of  this  crop,  and  it  is  now  in  the  barn  yard 
totally  uninjured. 

The  manner  in  which  the  lime  was  applied  in  the 
first  experiment,  has  been  mentioned,  but  as  the  mode 
afterwards  adopted,  seems  preferable,  on  account  of 
the  more  regular  distribution,  and  the  more  intimate 
admixture  of  the  lime  with  the  soil,  I  will  describe  it. 
Our  common  planting  acre  being  210  feet  square,  our 
fields  are  laid  out  in  quarter  acres,  usually  called  tasks 
of  105  feet  square,  marked  by  a  stake  at  each  corner 
of  the  tasks :  one  side  of  a  task  was  divided  into  ten 
parts,  each  ten  and  an  half  feet  in  length,  the  division 
marked  by  the  chop  of  a  hoe,  turning  a  sod  :  a  peck  of 
lime  was  deposited  in  a  heap  in  the  middle  of  each 
division,  at  five  and  a  quarter  feet  distance  from  the 
line.  A  similar  process  was  pursued  with  an  adjoin- 
ing line  of  the  task:  then  a  peck  of  lime  was  deposit- 
ed at  the  distance  of  ten  and  an  half  feet  from  each  of 
the  second  heaps,  near  the  connecting  angle  of  the  two 
lines,  (the  heap  nearest  the  angle  being  reckoned  the 
first  of  each  line) :  after  this,  no  more  measuring  is  ne- 
cessary, for  a  field  of  any  extent ;  two  heaps  being 
given  in  each  direction,  whereby  to  range  the  remaining 
pecks  of  lime.  One  hundred  pecks  or  twenty-five 
bushels  are  hereby  deposited  in  the  quarter  of  an  acre : 
and  on  the  same  principle  manure  may  be  distri- 
buted in  any  quantities  at  the  distance  required.  In 
order  to  ensure  the  lime  being  equally  and  intimately 
mixed  with  the  earth,  about  a  bushel  of  the  adjoining 
soil  should  be  scraped  from  the  surface  and  thrown 
on,  and  carefully  mixed  with  each  heap,  and  after- 
wards spread  equally  over  the  square  in  which  it  stands: 
and  this  should  be  done  soon  after  it  is  carried  on  the 
land,  because  rain  or  heavy  dew  is  apt  to  make  the 


14  ON  SALT  SPOTS 

lime  gather  into  lumps,  thereby  impeding  its  minute 
division  in  the  soil. 

The  expense  of  the  improvement  here  described, 
may  be  thus  calculated,  per  acre  : 

One  hundred  bushels  of  lime,  $12<|,  carrying  out  and 

spreading,  $1. -     -     -     -         $  13i 

Product  the  first  year,  at  a  moderate  computation,  two 
acres  of  rice,  (mine  produced  considerable  more) 
at  the  low  rate  of  $2£per  cwt. 30 

Clear  gain,  the  first  year,     -     -     -         l6£ 
The  land  having  previously  been  worthless,  its  whole 
value  in  its  improved  state  should  be  added  ;  this 
may  be  estimated  at-- 150 

So  that  the  entire  gain  on  each  acre  reclaimed,  after 

deducting  all  expenses,  will  be     -----      $l66£ 

It  may  be  thought,  and  indeed  the  question  has  been 
asked,  whether  the  reclaimed  salt  spots  may  not  in 
time  relapse  to  their  former  state  of  sterility  ;  as  I  have 
only  three  years  experienced  their  continued  fertility, 
I  cannot  positively  assert  any  thing  beyond  that  period: 
but  if  my  theory  of  the  manner  in  which  these  spots 
were  rendered  barren  be  correct,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  while  the  banks  are  kept  up,  they  will  not  revert  to 
their  former  condition. 

But  lest  the  success  I  have  met  with  in  cultivating 
marsh  land,  should  induce  others  to  attempt  it,  without 
equal  advantages,  it  should  be  mentioned,  that  this 
tract  is  situated  on  an  Island  formed  by  the  two 
branches  of  Santee  River,  a  creek  uniting  them  and 
the  ocean,  into  which  the  two  branches  fall  about  four 
miles  from  the  upper  boundary  ;  and  that  the  water  of 
the  north  branch  at  the  upper  angle  of  the  tract  is 
scarcely  ever  too  salt  for  vegetation,  and  by  means  of 
canals  this  water  may  be  conducted  over  all  the  re- 
claimed lands.  It  should  also  be  observed  that  on 
these  improved  salt  spots,  nothing  but  rice  has  been 


IN  MARSHES.  15 

hitherto  cultivated ;  I  cannot  therefore  say  from  ex- 
perience how  the  dry  culture  would  succeed  in  them  : 
but  on  other  parts  of  the  marsh,  oats,  barley,  peas,  and 
potatoes  grow  well:  but  indian  corn  has  invariably 
failed,  owing,  in  my  opinion,  to  the  deep  root  which 
this  plant  strikes;  penetrating,  at  a  time  when  it  wants 
most  nourishment  to  form  the  ear,  into  a  part  of  the 
soil  which  is  too  moist  and  which  has  not  been  ame- 
liorated by  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 

I  regret  that  I  cannot  at  present  recollect  any  expe- 
riment of  decided  amelioration  in  our  culture,  but 
one,  the  utility  of  which,  must  necessarily  be  so  limited. 
But  if  every  member  will  communicate  what  has  been 
fairly  proved  from  his  own  experience  to  be  advanta- 
geous, a  considerable  mass  of  useful  information  may 
be  collected.  And  if,  in  addition  to  this,  each  member 
would  annually  dedicate  a  very  small  portion  of  his 
land  and  his  attention,  to  a  well  planned  and  well 
recorded  experiment,  the  sources  for  such  communica- 
tions would  be  abundant. 

THOMAS  PINCKNEY, 


LETTER  III. 


Method  of  Puddling  for  Navigable  Canals,  Reservoirs, 
Banks,  Rice  Fields,  &c.  frc. 


/ 

\        40  feet  wide  at  top. 

/'    '              \ 

/ 

"'"\ 

O-JJ 

/->-               \ 

/  BANK. 

*\ 

/     -a-       BANK.    \ 

/         40  feet  wide  at 

:f:     \ 

.3-  ba=e.  \ 

-CL-     _*. 
'/".     ill 

20  feet  wide  at    j 
bottom.          / 

40    -3.        feet  foundation.         \ 

Oo  g" 

B  «-►  S 

A  HE  above  is  intended  to  represent  the  section  of 
a  canal  which  I  went  to  see,  while  forming,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Uxbridge — the  dimensions  may  not 
be  accurate,  as  they  were  only  ascertained  by  my 
stepping  them  off,  except  the  pudddle  part  which  I 
measured  more  exactly,  and  that  part  is  included  be- 
tween the  dotted  lines  in  each  bank.  In  case  the 
canal  is  carried  along  the  side  of  a  hill  the  lower  side 
alone  is  puddled,  as  that  is  the  only  way  by  which  the 
water  can  escape.  In  soils  which  are  improper  to 
retain  water,  which  are  principally  gravel,  limestone, 
and  some  chalks,  not  only  the  kind  of  walls  above 
delineated  in  the  banks,  but  the  whole  bottom  must 
likewise  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  puddle  about  two 
feet  thick.  Puddling  consists  in  an  intimate  admixture 
of  earth  and  water,  worked  to  the  consistence  ol  wet 


METHOD  OF  PUDDLING,  &C.  17 

mortar.  For  the  purpose  of  making  a  canal  bank 
tight,  a  beginning  is  made  by  digging  a  trench  three 
wide  and  four  feet  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  canal, 
in  such  a  situation  as  when  raised  perpendicularly  will 
unite  with,  the  top  of  the  inner  talus  of  the  bank  ;  in 
this  trench,  earth  of  any  kind  (coarse  gravel  excepted) 
is  to  be  thrown  to  the  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches, 
which  is  to  be  thoroughly  moistened  with  water,  by 
the  means  of  small  moveable  pumps  and  light  wooden 
troughs,  which  convey  the  water  where  wanted — the 
laborers  with  common  iron  spades,  chop  and  mix  the 
earth  and  water  well  together,  till  it  is  of  the  consis- 
tency of  mortar — the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  for  each 
layer  is  generally  practised  because  it  is  found  that-the 
spade  can  work  with  advantage  to  that  depth.  When 
one  layer  is  finished  another  is  put  on  and  worked  up 
in  the  same  manner  ;  and  the  bank  is  carried  on  each 
side  of  the  pudded  wall  in  proportion  as  that  proceeds — • 
in  case  any  time  intervenes  between  the  formation  of 
the  layers,  so  that  the  finished  part  become  dry,  some 
water  must  be  pumped  on  the  top,  a  few  inches  of  the 
upper  part  repuddled  to  insure  its  mixing  well  with  the 
ensuing  layer.  Clay  is  said  to  make  the  best  puddle, 
but  any  good  earth  when  cleared  of  stones,  roots,  and 
other  trash,  answers  very  well,  even  sheer  sand  will 
make  a  good  puddle.  By  this  method,  (the  discovery 
of  which  is  attributed  to  Brindley)  a  considerable 
part  of  the  expense  is  saved,  amounting  in  some  cases 
to  two  thirds;  for,  previous  to  this  invention,  where  the 
soil  was  unfavorable,  no  method  of  preventing  the 
escape  of  the  water  was  practised,  but  that  of  lining 
the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  canal  with  masonry  or 
other  expensive  materials. 

The  puddle  when  dried,  is  said  to  become  as  firm 
as  stone,  and  more  impervious  to  water  than  common 
masonry,  and  in  consequence  when  canals  are  carried 
over  bridges  of  masonry,  the  bottom  of  the  canal  is 
always  puddled  where  it  rests  on,  or  unites  with  the 


18  ON  RICE  PLANTING. 

masonry  of  the  bridge.  Ponds  are  by  this  method 
made  to  contain  water  in  the  most  unfavorable  soils,  and 
even  to  bear  the  tread  of  the  heaviest  cattle  without 
damage.  I  need  not  mention  with  what  advantage 
this  invention  may  be  applied  to  the  banks  of  all 
reservoirs,  rice  fields,  &c.  and  is  therefore  worthy  the 
attention  of  our  society  for  promoting  Agriculture. 
THOMAS  PINCKNEY. 


LETTER  IV. 


On  Rice  Planting, 


Richmond,  Cooper  River,  Feb.  20, 1824, 

GENTLEMEN— I  offer  myself  a  candidate  for  the 
premium  to  be  awarded  by  your  respectable  and  useful 
society  for  the  greatest  production  of  rice  in  our  state. 
I  am  aware  that  my  application,  strictly  speaking, 
does  not  come  within  the  mode  prescribed  in  your 
communication  to  the  public,  in  as  much  as  I  rest  my 
pretensions  on  the  production  of  twenty  acres,  whereas 
you  offer  for  only  one,  that  is  210  feet  square.  But 
with  great  deference  I  would  observe  that  it  must  be 
very  obvious  that  if  20  acres,  planter's  measure,  produce 
an  equal  quantity  of  grain  per  acre,  that  the  production 
of  the  former  must  be  regarded  equal,  if  not  superior 
to  the  latter.  Not  being  able  to  procure  one  of  your 
blank  forms,  I  will  therefore  make  my  statement  as 


ON  RICE  PLANTING.  19 

briefly  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  necessary  details 
of  the  plan  pursued  : — 

1st.  The  land  is  of  the  light  black  mould  or  soil, 
situated  on  she  eastern  branch  of  Cooper  River,  in  the 
parish  of  St.  John's  Berkley. 

2d.  The  field  contains  twenty  acres,  and  not  more, 
and  was  planted  in  rice  the  year  previous,  aud  cultivated 
in  the  usual  way. 

3d.  The  surface  of  the  field  was  not  touched 
after  the  stubble  of  the  preceding  crop  had  been  burnt 
off;  the  ditches  were  cleaned  out  and  are  located  in 
the  following  manner  :  a  marginal  ditch,  six  feet  wide 
and  four  and  a  half  deep  around  the  field  ;  ditches  one 
hundred  feet  apart,  two  feet  wide,  and  two  and  a  half 
deep,  running  from  river  to  high  land,  without  centre 
or  cross  ditch,  same  size. 

4th.  The  furrows  were  made  with  a  three  inch 
hoe,  between  the  old  rows,  being  fifteen  inches  apart 
from  centre  to  centre. 

5th.  Planted  on  the  28th  of  March,  put  six  pecks 
of  seed  to  each  acre,  the  seed  received  no  preparation 
whatever,  and  it  was  produced  on  the  same  plantation 
the  preceding  year. 

6th.  Hoed  the  first  time  the  last  of  April,  two 
hands  in  an  acre  ;  it  was  dug  deep,  and  the  old  rice 
roots  well  sodded  over. 

7th.  Put  on  the  water  the  first  of  May,  rice  then 
in  the  fourth  leaf,  and  kept  it  three  days  over  the  rice, 
then  drew  it  down  to  six  or  eight  inches,  and  so  kept 
it  for  eighteen  days ;  say  twenty-one  days  water  on 
the  field. 

8th.  Hoed  the  second  time,  eight  days  after  the 
water  was  let  off,  two  hands  to  an  acre. 

9th.  Put  on  the  water  1st  of  July,  rice  forming  the 
second  joint,  kept  it  on  until  the  rice  was  in  full  belly, 
then  drew  it  off  and  hand-picked  the  field  of  the  long 
grass,  one  hand  to  an  acre;  put  on  water  six  days 
after,  and  kept  it  on  till  the  rice  was  ready  for  harvest ; 


20  ON  klCE  frLANf  INCf. 

observing  to  change  or  freshen  the  water  every  third  or 
fourth  day. 

10th.  The  rice  was  cut  on  the  1st  day  of  Septem- 
ber, and  when  winnowed  produced  eighty-seven 
bushels  of  fine  rice,  from  the  sheaf,  per  acre,  and  three 
bushels  of  sound  rice,  from  straw  and  sweepings, 
making  a  total  of  ninety  bushels  per  acre. 

It  <;  ay  be  proper  for  me  to  state  that  the  production 
of  the  adjoining  fields  and  the  plantation  generally 
Was  very  good,  although  not  cultivated  in  precisely  the 
same  mode,  having  yielded  an  average  of  eighty-five 
bushels  per  acre ;  weight  of  rough  rice  46  lbs.  per 
bushel* 

The  production  of  about  one  half  of  an  acre  that 
is  banked  off  from  one  of  the  adjoining  fields  may  be 
Worthy  of  remark ;  it  was  managed  pretty  much  in 
the  same  way  as  the  twenty  acres  above  described, 
excepting  that  it  was  planted  twelve  inches  apart,  the 
drill  being  made  with  a  two  inch  hoe,  it  produced 
seventy  bushels  of  good  rice* 
With  great  respect, 

I  am  gentlemen,  your  ob't.  ser't. 

JORDAN  MYRICK. 

To  Messrs.  Washington  and  Huger. 


LETTER  V. 


On  Rice  Planting. 


Richmond,  Cooper  River,  February  20,  1824. 

CjENTLEMEN— J  received  your  favor  in  October 
last,  and  now  beg  leave  to  state  the  manner  after  which 
I  prepare  and  cultivate  the  soil  on  Cooper  River. 
The  first  and  most  essential  requisite,  is  to  have  the 
land  well  ditched  and  drained,  and  this  is  done  by  cut- 
ting a  marginal  ditch  all  round  the  field  six  feet  wide, 
and  four  and  an  half  deep,  with  a  river  trunk  to  each 
field  or  square,  sunk  to  low  water  mark  ;  the  small 
ditches  are  cut  one  hundred  feet  apart,  running  from 
the  high  land  to  the  river,  with  a  centre  ditch  if  neces- 
sary; these  ditches  are  two  feet  wide  and  two  and  an 
half  deep.  The  land  is  hoed  deep,  turned  up  every 
second  or  third  year  previous  to  planting.  1  begin  to 
plant  about  the  25th  of  March,  or  the  1st  of  April,  in 
drills  of  three  inches  wide,  and  fifteen  inches  from  cen- 
tre to  centre.  If  the  land  is  in  fine  order,  I  plant  about 
six  pecks  to  the  acre  ;  if  grassy,  and  in  bad  order,  I 
put  eight  pecks  per  acre.  After  sowing,  the  water  is 
put  on  for  two  or  three  days  to  sprout  the  rice — after 
Which  the  land  is  kept  dry  until  the  rice  is  fit  for  the 
hoe,  which  will  be  the  last  of  April  or  first  of  May — 
1  then  have  it  hoed  as  deep  as  the  rice  will  admit  of 
and  all  the  grass  and  weeds  taken  out  with  the  hand. — 
In  two  or  three  days  after  hoeing  I  commence  with  the 
water,  when  the  rice  is  in  the  third  or  fourth  leaf,  and 


22  *)N  RICE  PLANTING. 

sometimes  five  or  six  leaves  high;  1  then  put  on  the 
water  for  three  days  owr  the  tops  of  the  rice,  and 
then  slack  it  down  to  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  so  that 
the  tops  of  the  rice  are  out  of  water;  in  this  state  I 
keep  it  for  fifteen  or  twenty-one  days,  observing  to 
keep  the  water  fresh  by  frequently  changing  it.  1  then 
let  otf  the  water  and  keep  the  field  dry,  and  hoe  the 
second  time  in  about  eight  days  after,  or  sooner  if  the 
land  is  dry.  The  rice  now  remains  without  water 
until  it  is  hoed  a  third  time,  if  required,  which  it  some- 
times does;  the  rice  is  now  to  be  cleaned  of  all  grass, 
and  the  land  well  pulverized  with  the  hoe,  until  the 
rice  is  forming  the  second  joint.  I  then  put  on  the 
water  the  same  depth  as  before,  and  keep  it  on  until 
the  rice  is  in  belly — I  then  let  it  off  for  five  or  six  days, 
and  if  any  grass  is  left  it  is  then  hand-picked  ; — the 
water  is  now  put  on  until  the  rice  is  ripe,  observing 
to  flow  deeper  after  it  has  put  forth  its  ears.  I  have 
frequently,  by  this  manner  of  cultivating  the  soil,  made 
eighty  bushels  per  acre,  on  an  average  of  the  fields 
that  I  plant,  and  last  year  made  eighty-five  bushels. 
With  great  respect, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

JORDAN  MYRICK. 

To  Messrs,  Washington  and  Huger. 

[Mr.  Myrick  was  awarded  the  Society's  premium  of  the  gold 
medal,  for  producing  ninety  bushels  of  rice  to  the  acre,  from  twenty 
acres.] 


LETTER  VI. 


On  the  culture  of  seven  acres  of  Rice  Land,  sown 
broad  cast  in  the  year  1823. 

SOIL — Part  of  the  field  elay,  the  remainder  light 
husky  black  land. 

Preparation — This  field  was  kept  under  water 
during  the  winter,  occasionally  shifting  the  water,  to 
increase  the  deposit  of  the  particles  suspended  therein. 

May  29th — Three  ploughs  with  two  oxen  or  mules,, 
and  one  boy  each,  turning  the  land  with  the  stubble  on, 
and  four  women  turning  up  the  sides  of  the  ditches, 
drains  and  head  lands. 

30th — Three  ploughs  and  four  women  employed  as 
on  the  29th  inst.  and  two  men  employed  in  cleaning 
out  the  drains. 

31st — Two  harrows  with  two  mules  or  oxen  and 
one  boy,  each  preparing  the  land  to  receive  the  seed  ; 
four  women  levelling  back  the  mud  thrown  out  of  the 
drains,  atid  pulverizing  the  clods  on  the  sides  of  the 
ditches,  drains  and  headlands;  finished  preparing  early 
in  the  day.  One  of  the  boys  who  attended  the  har- 
rows, sowed  the  field  broad  cast,  at  the  rate  of  three 
bushels  to  the  acre.  On  that  evening  a  pole  was  put 
into  the  outside  door  of  the  trunk,  to  admit  a  suffi- 
ciency of  water  to  moisen  the  surface  of  the  land 
gradually,  to  prevent  the  rice  from  floating. 

June  1st — The  field  completely  flooded.  The  trunk 
minder  took  ofTthe  trash  as  it  floated  towards  the  banks. 

9th — Drew  off  the  water  and  kept  the  field  per- 
fectly dry,  until  the  sprout  of  the  rice  had  turned 
green. 


24  ON  RICE,  SOWN  BROAD  CAST. 

16th — Took  on  the  water  for  the  point  flow. 

2Mi — Drew  off  the  water  and  kept  the  field  per- 
fectly dry. 

July  20th — Put  an  the  water  and  kept  it  on,  occa- 
sionally shifting  it,  until  the  rice  was  .  ready  for  the 
sickle.  Two  women  were  employed  one  day  previous 
to  the  rice  earing  out,  in  picking  out  the  weeds  and 
waters  grass  from  the  margin  and  the  sides  of  the 
banks. 

Sept.  16th — Cut  the  rice  and  left  it  on  the  stubble. 

18^ — It  was  put  into  sheaves,  carried  into  the  barn- 
yard and  ricked. 

It  yielded  four  hundred  and  eighty-eight  bushels  of 
good  heavy  rice  weighing  forty-eight  pounds  to  the 
bushel.  It  was  measured  in  a  barrel  containing  ten 
bushels  when  struck;  but  as  the  measure  is  never 
struck,  I  know  that  instead  of  ten  bushels  it  exceeded 
that  quantity  from  four  to  eight  quarts.  Allowing 
however  the  excess  to  be  but  four  quarts,  then  the 
actual  quantity  growrn  from  the  seven  acres  would  be 
four  hundred  and  ninety-four  bushels  and  four  quarts, 
being  equal  to  seventy  bushels  and  nearly  nineteen 
quarts  to  the  acre. 

Estimate  of  Labor,  #-c. 

Three  ploughs  two  clays,  one  boy  and  two  mules  or  oxen, 

each  at  $1  per  day, •-      $6  00 

Two  harrows  one  day,   one  boy  and  two  mules  or  oxen, 

each  at  $1  per  day,  is 2  00 

Four  women  three  days,  at  25  cts.  each  per  day,  is  -  -  3  00 
Two  women  one  day,  picking  out  the  water  grass  and 

weeds,  at  25  cents  each,  is 0  50 

Two  men  cleaning  out  the  drains,  at  37£  cts.  each  per  day,  0  7~> 
Twenty-one  bushels  of  seed  rice  at  75  cents,  -  -  -  15  75 
The  value  of  the  straw,  small  rice,  and  flour,  is  put  against 

the  harvesting  and  threshing. 
24£  barrels,  600  weight,  each,  at  3,  $441  00 
Deduct  expenses,  -  -  28  00—413  00 

Equal  to  $59  per  acre. 

J.  MIDDLETON. 

To  Messrs.  Washington  and  Huger, 


LETTER  VII. 


On  Rice  Planting. 


Santee,  llth  November,  1823. 

felR — You  will  permit  me  to  acknowledge  the  favor 
conferred  on  me  by  your  letter,  in  behalf  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Society,  requesting  the  result  of  my  experi- 
ence on  the  subject  of  agriculture.  I  have  been  occu- 
pied in  this  pursuit  for  the  last  fifteen  years  of  my  life, 
and  have  planted  rice  on  all,  or  nearly  all  the  different 
kinds  of  soil  in  our  state  ;  the  preparation  for  this  crop 
admits  of  little  variety.  On  tide  land,  the  first  requi- 
site is  to  surround  it  by  substantial  banks,  and  intersect 
it  with  drains  in  such  manner  as  to  keep  the  land 
perfectly  dry  when  required.  As  soon  as  your  crop  is 
taken  off,  turn  your  land  deep  with  the  plough,  so  as 
to  bury  the  vegetable  matter,  then  keep  it,  through  the 
winter,  constantly  flooded,  observing  to  change  the 
water  as  often  as  practicable,  in  order  to  take  the^ 
benefit  of  the  sediment ;  the  water,  however,  must  be 
drawn  off  in  time  for  the  land  to  be  harrowed,  which 
I  consider  as  well  as  the  ploughing  to  be  of  great  im- 
portance. I  differ,  however,  from  most  planters,  and 
think  that  land  can  be  made  too  fine  ;  which  leaves  it 
after  the  first  flowing  so  incrusted  or  consolidated,  as 
to  make  it  difficult  for  the  tender  fibres  of  the  young 
plant  to  push  their  way  through.  I  therefore  do  not 
care  how  rough  the  land  is,  provided  it  is  so  well  broken 
4 


26  ON  RICE  PLANTING. 

as  not  to  prevent  the  germination  of  the  rice;  this  pro- 
cess is  applicable  only  to  the  fresh  lands  ;  on  the  salt  or 
brackish  lands,  deep  ploughing  or  digging  are  injuri- 
ous ;  on  such  lands  I  would  advise  shallow  ploughing 
or  turning  with  the  hoe  just  before  the  planting  season. 
The  land  being  thus  prepared  I  would  advise  that  it 
should  be  trenched  in  rows  twelve  inches  from  centre 
to  centre,  and  the  rice  sowed  on  a  string ;  the  trenches 
should  be  made  with  a  narrow  hoe,  so  as  to  string  the 
rice  to  something  like  two  inches  in  width.  The  hoes 
should  be  always  under  the  width  of  the  track  to  be  W 
cleaned,  otherwise  the  corner  of  the  hoe  must  be  used 
instead  of  the  broad  edge,  to  avoid  cutting  the  rice, 
and  consequently  the  land  will  not  be  sufficiently  stirred. 
The  rice  being  planted,  the  sprout  watering  is  given  to 
it,  to  bring  it  up ;  this  being  drawn  off,  and  the  rice  in 
the  needle  state,  I  give  it  what  is  termed  the  point 
flowing,  which  I  hold  on  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time, 
according  to  the  following  circumstances: — when  the 
object  is  merely  to  show  your  rice  in  the  drill,  three 
days  are  quite  enough  ;  if  the  birds  are  troublesome  I 
hold  on  six  days,  which  will  partially  throw  the  rice- 
tops  to  the  ground  without  injury.  Where  the  object  is 
to  destroy  the  growth  of  grass,  the  point  watering  should 
be  held  on  from  twelve  to  fifteen  days,  at  which  time 
the  rice  will  stand  erect;  and  when  the  water  is  drawn 
off  the  surface  of  the  land,  will  be  found  clean;  and 
such  will  be  the  ascendency  of  the  rice  over  the  grass, 
that  little  labor  is  necessary  afterwards  to  make  the 
crop.  The  point  water  being  drawn  off,  on  the  old 
worn  lands  I  keep  dry  and  give  two  deep  hoeings, 
which  brings  the  rice  to  a  strong  stand :  the  long  flow 
is  then  introduced,  which  I  seldom  continue  exceeding 
fifteen  days  and  not  less  than  twelve.  Such  lands,  as 
the  last  mentioned,  to  produce  a  great  crop  must  be 
again  hoed  deep,  twice  more  and  once  shallow,  which 
will  make  five  hoeings  in  all,  which  will  suffice,  as 
shortly  after,  on   a  distinct  separation  of  the  first  and 


ON  RICE  PLANTING.  27 

second  joints  the  last  flow  should  be  introduced,  to  be 
changed  but  not  drawn  off,  until  the  time  for  harvesting. 
Although  this  last  process  of  long  flowing  and  hand 
hoeing  is  calculated  to  make  the  greatest  yield  to  the 
acre,  much  more  can  be  made  to  the  hand  by  using  the 
water  more  freely;  for  instance,  in  cases  of  emergency 
I  have,  after  the  long  water  was  put  on,  never  drawn 
off  except  to  run  through  with  the  hoe,  and  succeeded 
extremely  well.  Any  lands  not  polluted  with  grass 
will  yield  handsomely  under  this  course  :  the  water  so 
reduces  the  necesssity  of  labor  as  to  enable  you  to 
plant  and  attend  two  acres  more  to  the  hand.  I 
planted  rice  successfully  five  years  on  Pon  Pon  River, 
and  am  convinced,  from  my  observations  then  and 
since,  that  those  lands  will  stand  the  water  culture 
without  introducing  the  pernicious  grasses,  better  than 
any  of  the  rice  lands  north  of  Charleston.  In  the 
year  1817,  which  was  memorable  for  the  quantity  of 
rain  which  fell  during  the  summer  and  autumn,  I 
planted  about  sixty  acres  on  Col.  Morris'  plantation, 
after  Gen.  Thomas  Pinckney's  plan  of  water  culture, 
bestowing  about  five  days  work  on  the  whole,  and 
made,  after  a  bad  harvest,  about  forty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  I  highly  approve  of  the  mode  of  bringing  up 
rice  under  one  water  instead  of  covering  with  earth, 
provided  the  rice  is  prevented  from  floating,  which  it 
will  do  if  not  previously  wet  with  dew,  rain,  or  in 
some  other  manner,  or  the  water  taken  in  slowly  at 
night.  I  have  planted  four  hundred  acres  on  Santee 
during  the  present  year  with  entire  success,  indeed 
more  than  after  the  usual  way. 

Permit  me  now  to  communicate  the  result  of  a  disco- 
very which  I  made  during  the  last  season,  illustrating 
the  advantage  of  a  change  of  seed  or  vines  in  the  sweet 
potatoe.  1  planted  for  Mrs.  Horry,  of  her  own  seed, 
sound  and  well  preserved  slips  grown  from  the  cut  vines 
of  the  preceding  year,  and  for  myself  on  far  inferior  land 
and  on  the  same  plantation,  of  seed  which  I  procured 


28  ON  SWEET  POTATOES. 

from  John  Middleton,  Esq.  At  the  season  for  using 
potatoes,  I  was  astonished  to  find  my  own  better  than 
Mrs.  Horry's.  This  astonishment  soon  subsided,  for  I 
found  in  my  own  field  that  the  vines  which  I  had  ob- 
tained from  Mrs.  Horry's  field  were  very  superior, 
producing  on  adjoining  rows,  at  a  guess,  nearly  two  to 
one  by  measurement  or  weight.  Having  thus,  I  pre- 
sume, tired  your  patience,  I  subscribe  myself, 
Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  H.  ALSTON. 
To  William  Washishgton,  Esq. 


LETTER  VIII. 


On  the  Culture  of  the  Sweet  Potatoe. 


X  HE  last  year,  (1823,)  I  selected  two  half  acres  of 
land,  of  a  light  sandy  soil,  as  equal  in  quality  as  possi- 
ble, with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  most  profitable 
mode  of  cultivating  the  Sweet  Potatoe — namely, 
whether  the  seed  ought  to  be  cut  into  two  or  more 
parts,  according  to  the  usual  practice,  or  to  be  planted 
whole.  These  two  half  acres  were  manured  equally 
with  long  litter  or  straw  from  the  barn  yard,  and  the 
same  labor  was  bestowed  on  each.  The  result  is  as 
follows — the  half  acre  planted  with  the  cut  seed  pro- 
duced 56*  heaped  bushels,  being  equal  to  113  bushels 


ON  THE  TUSCANY  CATTLE.  29 

to  the  acre,  and  gave  no  vines  in  time*  for  slip  planting. 
The  half  acre  planted  with  the  whole  seed,  gave  108 
bushels,  being  equal  to  216  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
produced  vines  early  and  in  abundance.  As  the  expe- 
rience of  one  year  however,  cannot  lead  to  just  con- 
clusions in  agriculture,  I  shall  continue  the  experiment 
until  1  am  perfectly  satisfied  as  to  the  result. 

This  paper  is  laid  before  the  Society,  with  a  view 
of  inducing  others  to  institute  a  similar  course  of 
experiments. 

J.  MIDDLETON. 

Wacho,  20th  Feb.  1823. 


*  It  is  said  that  the  vines  will  take  and  produce  good  slips  even 
when  put  out  in  dry  weather,  provided  they  are  put  in  a  line  on  the 
top  of  the  bed  and  then  covered  with  earth,  leaving  only  four  or  five 
inches  of  the  vine  extending  beyond  the  rows  where  they  are  inter- 
sected by  the  cross  alleys.  This  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  as 
to  merit  experiment.  W.  W. 


LETTER  IX. 


The  Tuscany  Cattle, 

Imported  by  Com.  Bainbridge  and  Purser  Hamilton, 

and  now  in  South-Carolina. 


Charleston,  Jan.  20th,  1824, 

DEAR  SIR— Your  favor  of  the  20th  November,  I 
received  on  my  return  to  town  a  few  days  since.  The 
first  calf  of  the  Tuscan  cow  was  a  female,  the  second 


30  ON  THE  TUSCANY  CATTLE* 

a  male,  and  are  doing  well.  The  half-blooded  calves 
are  strongly  marked  in  figure  and  color;  I  believe  that 
one  could  select  them  out  of  the  stock.  I  shall  have 
about  thirty  of  the  half-bloods  by  the  spring;  I  intend 
keeping  all  the  females,  and  about  six  of  the  males ; 
the  remainder  1  shall  dispose  of  at  a  moderate  price, 
to  such  as  may  wish  to  purchase.  Since  I  last  wrote, 
I  have  seen  the  gentleman  who  grew  the  crop  of  Guinea 
corn.  I  was  correct  as  to  the  quantity  per  acre,  but 
his  manager  was  mistaken,  as  to  the  weight ;  its  weight 
is  from  sixty-three  to  sixty-four  pounds,  per  bushel. 
I  shall  send  you  some  of  the  grain  by  the  Harvest, 
Capt^  Emery,  by  whom  I  sent  the  Guinea  grass  seed, 
which  I  hope  you  have  received.  I  intend  planting 
ten  acres  the  present  season  ;  I  shall  put  it  in  small 
beds,  five  feet  apart,  and  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
feet  apart  on  the  bed  ;  a  few  seeds  in  each  hole  will 
be  sufficient.  Attend  it  in  the  same  manner  as  you 
would  corn ;  plant  about  the  1st  of  May.  In  rich  land 
the  product  is  great,  and  on  a  poor  soil  it  produces,  I 
am  informed,  more  than  any  other  grain.  It  is  not 
injured  by  water,  that  is  to  say,  it  will  grow  well  in 
such  land  as  may  be  partially  covered  in  wet  seasons. 
It  has  a  discouraging  appearance  until  the  heats  of 
summer,  when  it  grows  rapidly,  and  will  continue  to 
put  out  heads  until  checked  by  autumnal  dews. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  MIDDLETON. 


LETTER  X. 


On  the  Culture  of  the  Sweet  Potatoe. 


JJEAR  SIR — Through  you,  I  would  beg  leave  to 
report  to  the  South-Carolina  Agricultural  Society,  the 
produce  of  two  acres  of  land,  one  planted  with  slip 
potatoes,  the  other  with  rice :  in  the  first  instance,  I 
must  state  the  soil  to  be  a  good  sandy  loam,  well  cow 
penned  in  the  year  1822,  but  in  the  last  year,  say  1823, 
no  manure  of  any  sort  or  kind  was  applied  to  this  piece 
of  ground.  I  had  the  ground  laid  off  with  a  small 
tracking  plough,  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  the  ground 
listed  with  the  hoe,  the  alleys  ploughed  with  a  shovel 
plough,  and  then  well  bedded  with  the  hoe.  As  early 
as  possible,  I  procured  potatoe  vines  of  the  yam,  and 
of  the  red  and  white ;  they  were  cut  in  short  pieces  of 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches,  one  vine  lengthwise, 
another  across  the  bed,  thus  ><J,  was  placed  on  the  cen- 
tre of  the  bed  :  the  centre  of  the  vines  was  then  com- 
pressed with  each  planter's  fist,  and  then  a  handful  or 
two  of  earth  from  the  alley,  filled  up  the  hollow  occa- 
sioned by  the  indent  of  the  fist,  which  also  covered  the 
vines  well,  so  on  was  the  whole  planted  at  the  distance 
of  from  six  to  eight  inches  apart;  on  the  bed,  they 
were  very  carefully  hand-picked,  and  hoed  twice.  The 
above  is  the  manner  of  preparing  and  cultivating  this 
acre  of  ground,  which  was  exactly  two  hundred  and  ten 


32  ON  SWEET  POTATOES. 

feet  square  ;  the  product  three  hundred  and  fifty-two 
and  an  half  bushels  as  per  certificate.  I  would  add, 
while  planting,  I  had  as  favorable  seasons  as  I  possi- 
bly could  desire.  It  appears  requisite,  that  I  should 
state  the  produce  of  another  acre  of  slips,  so  as 
to  compare  with  the  above.  I  did  not  select  any  one 
particular  acre,  yet  hope  the  following  will  more 
satisfactory.  I  had  a  piece  of  ground  about  three 
hundred  yards  from  the  above  piece,  containing  seven 
acres  and  seven  eights:  this  ground  is  tolerable,  of  a 
sandy  loam,  and  was  laid  off  four  and  a  half  feet,  then 
listed  with  the  hoe,  the  alleys  ploughed,  and  then 
bedded  with  the  hoe ;  a  part  of  this  ground  was  planted 
as  above,  the  balance  planted  in  the  usual  way,  say 
lying  the  vines  lengthwise  and  then  taking  a  hoe  full 
of  earth,  drop  it  on  the  vines,  pat  it  with  the  hoe, 
leave  a  space  of  about  12  inches,  another  hoe  full  of 
earth  and  so  on  throughout  the  whole;  it  was  hoed 
twice  and  ploughed  once.  The  season  of  planting 
those  seven  acres  and  seven-eights  was  very  unfavora- 
ble :  a  great  many  of  the  vines  died,  the  whole  produce 
of  slips  was  only  four  hundred  and  nine  bushels,  which 
was  only  an  average  of  about  forty-eight  bushels  per 
acre,  which  is  a  very  poor  return,  and  less  than  we 
generally  make. 

I  would  now  mention  to  you  the  preparation  of  the 
land,  whereon  I  planted  my  rice ;  it  is  a  pond,  which  had 
been  under  water  nearly  two  years,  and  had  originally 
been  planted  in  cotton.  I  had  the  ground  well  turned 
with  the  hoe,  gave  my  driver  directions  to  track  it  off 
twenty  inches  apart,  but  in  consequence  of  his  not 
fully  comprehending  me  about  one  third  of  the  ground 
was  trenched  twenty  six  inches,  two-thirds  twenty 
inches  apart,  two  and  a  quarter  bushels  of  seed  to  the 
acre. 

This   acre   was   hoed    but   once,   and   never    had 
the  advantage  of  water,  that  is  for  the  ground  to  be  as  • 
moist  as  it  ought,  and  the  local  situation  of  this  ground 


ON  SWEET  POTATOES.  3J 

was  such,  as  to  prevent  me  from  flowing  it.  It  was 
cut  with  rice  hooks  in  the  morning  ;  a  little  rain  coming 
on,  we  were  obliged  to  bring  it  home  in  a  wagon,  stack- 
ed it  up  in  small  cocks;  after  it  was  dry,  I  had  it  put  in 
larger  stacks,  had  it  trashed  with  flails  and  cleanly 
winnowed;  had  the  same  persons  who  saw  it  cut  to 
assist  me  in  the  measuring  of  it — the  produce  was 
sixty-five  bushels  and  four  quarts.  I  had  four  other 
other  acres,  one  of  which  was  on  high  land,  and  which 
I  do  not  think,  yielded  more  than  eight  or  ten  bushels; 
the  other  three  was  pond  land,  and  produced  about 
forty  bushels  per  acre.  I  submit  the  two  above  acres 
to  the  consideration  of  your  society,  and  should  they 
think  proper  to  award  me  a  premium,  I  shall  consider 
myself  honored  by  their  award. 

I  would  also  mention,  that  I  have  made  an  experi- 
ment in  manuring  a  part  of  my  corn  land.  It  is  with 
cotton  seed,  prepared  in  the  following  manner;  as  soon 
as  the  frosts  affect  us,  I  have  my  seed  put  in  each  stall 
of  my  stable,  say  on  a  thick  plank  floor ;  I  have  it  put 
there  in  order  that  the  horses  may  mash  the  seeds, 
whereby  the  germinating  quality  is  destroyed,  but  the 
virtue  of  the  seed  retained,  and  nothing  evaporated. 
I  manured  twelve  acres  of  land  the  last  year  with  this 
kind  of  manure,  in  the  following  manner;  ground,  well 
broke  with  the  plough, laid  off  seven  feet  by  four,  double 
stalks,  a  good  handful  only  in  each  hill  of  this  manure, 
underneath  the  corn,  then  covered  ;  the  product  per 
acre  was  fifteen  bushels  of  white  flint  corn.  In  the 
same  field,  (a  road  only  passing  through,)  I  manured 
twelve  and  a  half  acres,  with  stable  and  cowpen  manure, 
two  quarts  of  manure  to  each  hill,  the  ground  prepar- 
ed as  above,  lain  off  seven  feet  by  three  and  a  half, 
double  stalks,  of  yellow  flinty  corn;  the  product  was 
twelve  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre — both  pieces 
received  the  exact  same  cultivation.  Hence  I  infer, 
the  cotton  seed  prepared  as  above  stated,  preferable  to 
stable  or  cowpen  manure. 
5 


34  ON  SHEEP. 

I  shall  be  pleased  if  this  mode  of  applying  the  cotton 
seed  will  be  in  the  least  beneficial  to  any  one  of  your 
society. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Yours,  very  respectfully, 

W.  R.  BULL, 

To  Charles  E.  Rowand,  Esq. 
Secretary  of  the  S.  C.  Agricultural  Society. 


LETTER  XI. 


Essay  on  the  importance  of  raising  Sheep  in  the  State. 

A  SPIRIT  of  enlightened  inquiry  has  been  excited 
in  the  agricultural  community,  from  which  the  hap- 
piest results  may  be  anticipated:  arising  from  the 
successful  enterprise  of  many  distinguished  individuals, 
combined  with  the  amicable  competition,  and  concen- 
tration of  talent,  effected  by  the  introduction  of  Agri- 
cultural Societies.  Few  years  only,  have  elapsed, 
since  the  first  dawn  of  light  broke  on  the  science  of 
agriculture;  a  long  generation  has  basely  passed  away, 
since  the  knowledge  of  this  art  was  confined  to  tradi- 
tionary customs.  From  this  new  era,  important  re- 
sults have  already  arisen,  and,  it  may  be  instanced  (as 
more  particularly  connected  with  the  subject  of  this 
paper)  the  attention  awakened  to  the  improvement  of 
the  different  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  and  the  al- 


ON  SHEEP.  35 

most  general  acknowledgement  and  due  appreciation 
of  the  value  of  manure,  in  promoting  the  growth  of 
your  staple  crops;  whilst  the  animal  capable  of  con- 
ferring the  greatest  benefit  to  the  community,  appears  to 
have  received  but  little  attention. 

Of  all  the  domesticated  animals,  none,  perhaps,  are 
so  beneficial  to  man,  in  a  civilized  state,  as  the  sheep. 
A  prejudice  appears  to  exist  here  against  this  animal, 
arising  from  its  feeding  so  closely,  that  it  is  supposed  to 
impoverish  where  it  feeds  Let  it  be  asked,  if  such 
is  the  fact  ?  This  deteriorating  quality  is  not  alleged 
against  it  in  other  countries,  where  abundant  oppor- 
tunities, arising  from  long  experience,  must  have  de- 
tected it,  if  such  was  the  case ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  opposite  qualities.  Mr.  Taylor, 
in  his  "  Arator,"  has  expressed  opinions,  unfavorable 
to  this  animal,  but  without  foundation,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  notice  it  is  receiving,  from  various 
cor  res  pendents  in  the  '  American  Farmer .'  Mr. 
Young,  in  his  '  Calendar  of  Husbandry?  writes  thus, 
"  where  grasses,  &c.  are  not  likely  to  decline,  the 
"  more  sheep  you  keep,  the  more  you  may  keep,  and 
"  the  more  corn  (grain)  you  will  reap,  a  circumstance 
"  too  important  to  be  forgotten."  Is  it  not  high  time, 
that  some  decisive  experiments  should  be  made,  to  de- 
termine whether  this  is  the  only  country,  possessing 
almost  every  variety  of  soil,  in  which  sheep  cannot  be 
made  beneficial  ?  Various  sections  of  different  pasto- 
ral countries,  have  established  the  fact,  that  agriculture 
lias  advanced,  in  proportion  to  the  attention  paid  to 
this  valuable  animal. 

The  introduction  of  new,  or  different  breeds  of  ani- 
mals, or  improvement  of  your  elder  ones,  must  neces- 
sarily be  attended  with  expense  and  trouble,  and  can- 
not be  effected,  but  by  attention  and  perseverance. 
This  remark  applies  particularly  to  sheep,  and  improv- 
ing the  same  by  judicious  crossing.  Few  animals  are 
more  susceptible  of  improvement  than  sheep,  from 


36  ©N  SHEEP. 

their  numerous  breeds  and  rapid  propagation,  enabling 
each  section  of  country,  in  a  few  years,  to  obtain  a 
breed  particularly  adapted  to  its  soil,  climate  and  pro- 
ductions ;  as  will  more  fully  appear  by  consulting  the 
table  annexed. 

Contrast  the  little  mountain  sheep  of  Wales,  cropping 
its  sweet  scanty  herbage,  avaraging  six  to  eight  pounds 
per  quarter,  and  clipping  one  to  one  and  an  half  pounds 
to  the  fleece;  to  the  large  sheep  of  Linconshire,  brow- 
zing  in  luxuriant  marshes,  avaraging  twenty-five  to 
thirty  pounds  to  the  quarter,  and  clipping  eightto  eleven 
pounds  to  the  fleece ;  and  the  long  legged,  horned, 
short  woolled  Norfolk,  with  restless  rambling  disposi- 
tion, that  hurdles  scarcely  can  confine,  to  the  short 
legged,  no  horned,  long  woolled  Leicester,  that  may 
be  folded  nearly  to  a  line,  without  hurdle  or  fence. 

The  greatest  apparent  difficulties  to  be  overcome 
here,  are  the  obtaining  a  good  stock  to  breed  from, 
varieties  to  cross  with,  competent  persons  to  act  as 
shepherds,  and  the  raising  sufficient  food  for  winter 
keep  ;  but  surely  there  is  ample  energy  and  intelligence 
in  our  agricultural  community,  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulties, which  certainly,  are  not  greater  than  others 
have  had  to  contend  with,  if  the  climate  and  modes 
of  agriculture  are  not  favorable  to  the  raising  this 
winter  provender,  a  very  great  advantage  is  obtained 
in  the  mildness  of  our  winters  and  early  spring.  A 
short  review  of  what  has  been  done  in  another  coun- 
try, towards  perfecting  this  animal,  may  tend  to  ren- 
der our  difficulties  less  formidable,  and  assist  to  place 
this  animal  in  its  fair  light. 

When  we  look  at  an  Alfom,  bred  in  the  lowest 
walks  of  life,  but  in  whom  an  attention  to  this  ani- 
mal seemed  almost  intuition,  how  must  the  difficul- 
ties shrink  before  those  in  more  fortunate  situations, 
in  point  of  wealth,  influence  and  opportunities. 
Next  iu  succession  comes  a  Bake  well,  who  made  the 


ON  SHEEP.  Ol 

Study  of  his  life  the  improvements  of  this  valuable 
animal,  and  well  was  he  rewarded,  if  the  high  esti- 
mation in  whuh  his  stock  was  held  may  be  taken  as  a 
criterion.  In  the  year  1789,  he  received  about  three 
thousand  guineas  for  the  hire  of  ten  rams,  for  the 
season.  The  celebrity  of  this  gentleman,  led  others  to 
endeavor  to  improve  different  breeds,  more  particu- 
larly the  fine-woolled  ;  and  a  Mr.  Ellnian  distinguished 
himself  as  an  improver  in  this  department,  by  his 
judieious  crosses  of  the  Southdown,  Berskshire  and 
Norfolk.  His  breed  became  so  justly  famous,  that 
Mr.  Coke,  the  patriotic  improver  of  the  agriculture 
of  his  country,  (and  who  sent,  as  presents,  some 
valuable  animals  to  gentlemen  in  Maryland,)  is  said  to 
have  purchased  a  ram  of  V]r.  Ell  man's  breed,  at  1,000 
guineas;  and  after  considerable  expense  in  setting  a  new 
Leicester  or  Bakevvell  flock,  changed  it  to  an  improved 
Southdown.  The  writer  has  frequently  had  the  plea- 
sure of  witnessing  the  beauty,  similitude,  and  high- 
excellence  of  this  large  and  almost  unequal  flock.  The 
names  of  many  could  easily  be  added  to  this  imperfect 
sketch,  who  have  improved  their  fortunes  by  an  atten- 
tion to  sheep,  and  given  proof  how  highly  that  atten- 
tion was  deserved.  If  Stowe,  the  ancient  chronicler, 
may  be  relied  on,  the  celebrated  Merino  was  not  origi- 
nally a  native  of  Spain,  but  was  obtained  from  theCoIts- 
wold,  or  Ryeland,  during  the  period  the  monasticks 
had  the  care  of  the  flocks  of  sheep  in  England.  These 
remarks  are  introduced,  to  show  how  highly  this  ani- 
mal is  esteemed  in  a  country,  where  agriculture  is 
carried  to  as  high  a  pitch  of  excellence,  as  perhaps,  on 
any  part  of  the  globe. 

The  time  appears  not  far  distant,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  high  bounty  given  to  the  maunfacturer, 
at  the  expense  of  the  farmer,  when  our  wool  may 
command  a  price,  commensurate  with  its  quality ;  so 
as  to  make  it  an  object  to  the  grower  to  obtain  it  of 
the  best  quality,  in  the  greatest  quantity.     A  profita- 


OO  ON   SHEEP. 

ble  market  for  the  mutton,  cannot  be  calculated  op 
with  like  certainty;  but,  surely,  there  is  as  good  a  chance 
of  a  market  for  mutton  and  lambs  as  there  is  tor  beef  or 
veal.  The  profit  to  be  made,  either  on  wool,  mutton, 
or  lambs,  is  not  so  much  contended  for  (although  each 
may  certainly  be  male  to  yield  some  profit)  as  the  im- 
provement which  mav  be  effected  on  the  lands:  particu- 
larly where  they  are  lisht  and  blowing,  by  the  more 
general  introduction  of  sheep   upon  them. 

In  Young's  *  Annals  of  Agriculture,'  a  correspondent 
writes,  "on  his  soil,  a  li^ht  blowing  sand,  he  keeps  eight 
"  hundred  ewes.  He  once  grew  three  hundred  and 
"  ninety  bushels  of  (Irish)  potatoes  from  one  acre  of  his 
"  general  soil,  where  the  sheep  had  laid  in  bad  weather, 
"  but  from  whence  a  spade  deep  had  been  taken  away, 
"  which  proves  how  deep  the  urine  must  have  sunk, 
"  and  thus  sinking  without  being  lost." 

A  friend  of  the  writer,  for  many  years  kept  a  dairy  of 
cows  on  his  farm  with  no  sheep  :  about  the  year  1812 
he  was  induced  to  change  his  dairy,  for  a  flock  of  sheep ; 
the  same  pastures  on  which  he  had  kept  his  cows,  im- 
proved so  much  by  being  pastured  with  sheep,  that  in 
about  four  years,  they  were  enabled  to  support  nearly 
double  the  number  they  were  capable  of  supporting 
when  the  change  first  took  place.  It  is  nearly  within 
the  recollection  of  living  witnesses,  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  (England,)  generally  a 
light  sandy  soil,  laid  principally  open  in  extensive 
heaths;  or,  as  they  were  termed,  sheep-walks  ;  giving 
a  bare  subsistence  to  an  inconsiderable  number  of 
rambling  ragged-coated  sheep ;  importing  grain  from 
other  counties  and  Holland,  for  the  support  of  its  thin 
and  scattered  population;  is  now,  by  an  improved 
breed,  and  more  general  introduction  of  this  valuable 
animal,  become  the  first  farming,  and  one  of  greatest 
exporting  grain  counties  in  England  ;  supplying  her 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  the  barley  used  in 
making  her   principal   beverage,    besides    much    of 


ON  SHEEP.  39 

the  mutton  consumed  in  London.  Her  influence  on 
the  wool-market  is  equal U  important.  Take  from  her, 
her  sheep,  and  she  must  return  to  her  original  steiiity 
and  dependence. 

Even  in  this  day  of  experiment  and  improvement,  it 
is  not  probable  any  one  could  be  found  so  imprudent 
as  to  veuture  a  large  capital  in  an  extensive  flock, 
befo»>  its  merits  shall  have  been  sufficiently  tested,  but 
with  Jinle  more  attention  than  is  usually  paid  to  other 
stock  experiments  might  be  tried,  which  would  tend 
to  prov: ,  in  what  degree,  sheep  might  be  made  to  con- 
tribute to  the  general  interests  of  agriculture. 

The  writer  has  neither  ability  nor  opportunity  to  test, 
himself,  what  degree  of  attention  sheep  may  be  deser- 
ving of  here,  but  from  the  high  estimation,  in  which  he 
knows  it  to  be  held,  by  many  eminent  agriculturalists, 
he  cannot  but  think  it  deserving  of  more  attention 
than  he  has  ever  observed  paid  to  it,  in  this  part  of  the 
country.  It  would  be  foreign  to  the  intention  of  this 
paper,  to  enter  on  any  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the 
different  breeds,  or  general  management  of  a  flock ; 
abundant  information  on  these,  and  most  other  particu- 
lars, connected  with  the  subject,  may  be  obtained  by 
consulting  the  '  American  Farmer?  Rees'  *  Ency- 
clopedia," "  Encyclopedia  Brittanica,"  &c. 

WILLIAM  BROWNE. 


(j^  See  Synopsis  on  the  next  page. 


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LETTER  XIL 


On  Cotton  Planting. 


Daniels'  Island,  July  30th,  1824t 

OIR — I  duly  received  your  letter  of  the  22d  instant,^ 
and  will,  with  much  pleasure,  communicate  to  you,  as 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Communications  of  the 
Agricultural  Society,  my  efforts  in  agriculture,  and  I 
agree  with  you,  that  all  our  experiments  in  that  first  of 
arts,  ought  to  be  freely  communicated. 

In  answer  to  your  first  query :  my  attention  has 
been  altogether  directed  to  cotton  and  provisions,  and 
I  generally  commence  planting  from  20th  to  25th 
March ;  in  the  lands  that  I  plant,  I  lay  out  my  beds 
four  feet  nine  inches  and  a  quarter,  or  twenty-two  beds 
in  one  hundred  and  five  feet;  some  very  rich  lands 
perhaps,  require  more  surface  space,  and  thin  lands 
require  less. 

In  close  stiff  lands,  I  decidedly  prefer  raising  the 
the  beds  well,  in  the  first  instance  ;  as  when  the  action 
of  the  sun  has  its  effects  on  the  land,  it  is  difficult  ever 
to  raise  your  bed  if  you  do  not  at  first ;  in  light  lands 
it  may  be  different,  but  I  think  in  all  lands,  you  are 
more  protected  both  against  droughts  and  rain  by  your 
bed  having  a  good  body.  I  commence  hoeing  accor- 
ding to  circumstances,  but  generally  by  the  20th  of 
April,  as  I  never  wait  for  grass,  the  first  hoeing  is 
generally  to  mash  the  lumps  and  consolidate  the  bed, 
in  which  hoeing  I  seldom  thin.  The  next  hoeing,  I 
6 


42  ON  COTTON  PLANTING. 

generally  commence  after  the  first  of  May,  when  I 
commence  pulling  out  the  young  cotton  in  handsfull.  or 
as  it  may  require,  in  the  next  hoeing,  which  commences 
perhaps  about  the  midde  of  May,  I  thin  to  three  and 
four,  for  I  always  incorporate  my  thinning  with  my 
hoeing ;  for  although  thinning  cotton  may  seem  to  be 
trifling  labor,  take  it  as  a  day's  work  there  is  nothing 
more  irksome;  for  the  last  thinning  1  generally  put 
careful  negroes,  to  select  and  leave  the  best  plants, 
which  is  usually  about  the  10th  of  June,  when  I 
thin  to  two  in  each  hill,  of  which  I  have  from  fifty- 
five  to  sixty  in  one  hundred  apd  five  feet.  Like  other 
practical  planters,  I  have  changed  my  mind  frequently 
as  to  leaving  cotton  thick  or  thin,  perhaps  from  the 
turn  of  a  season,  but  am  now  decidedly  of  opinion, 
that  too  thick  cotton  is  not  beneficial,  and  never  more 
than  two  in  one  hill.  I  use  the  plough  in  preparing 
my  land  for  planting  and  in  digging  my  ditches,  but 
never  for  hoeing. 

As  to  manures,  I  have  tried  the  mud  that  we  have 
in  our  creeks,  but  did  not  find  it  answer,  but  have 
found  great  advantage  from  the  marsh  cut  in  the  sum- 
mer and  listed  on  in  the  winter,  but  more  particularly 
by  being  rotted  in  the  cowpen.  I  think,  generally 
speaking,  three  acres  and  a  half,  is  sufficient  for  a  negro 
to  attend,  if  he,  at  the  same  time,  raises  provisions  for 
his  sustenance.  I  approve  much  of  the  whipping 
machine,  and  think  I  have  enhanced  the  value  of  my 
cotton  at  least  five  per  cent,  for  the  last  two  years,  by 
using  one  that  Mr.  Birnie  made  me,  which  was  the  first 
he  made.  As  to  potatoes  and  potatoe  slips,  I  manure 
highly,  and  am  decidedly  of  opinion  we  can  raise  the 
same  quantity  on  half  of  the  land.  I  never  plant  more 
than  from  eight  to  ten  acres,  of  both  slips  and  roots, 
to  feed  about  fifty  negroes,  horses,  cows,  &c.  and  feed 
upwards  of  seven  months  in  the  year.  I  use  the 
plough  in  preparing  the  lands  for  them  also,  to  great 
advantage. 


ON  COTTON  PLANTING.  43 

I  hart  about  two  acres  of  land  in  a  body  that  was 
planted  with  joint  grass,  which  I  ploughed  and  har- 
rowed three  or  four  times  successively,  raked  it  in  the 
intervals,  and  carried  off  the  roots,  amounting  to  up- 
wards of  twenty  cart  loads,  in  the  fall  of  1822;  last 
winter  it  was  completely  rotted.  I  put  it  on  an  acre  of 
tend,  to  which  I  added  about  thirty-five  bushels  of 
lime,  and  planted  the  20th  of  March,  in  cotton  ;  the 
coi ton  is  at  present  promising,  and  I  think  two  weeks 
ah  ad  of  cotton  that  was  planted  about  the  same 
time. 

I  am,  sir, 

With  great  respect,  yours, 

ROB.  RALSTON. 

To  William  Washington,  Esq. 

N.  B. — Alluding  to  the  quantum  of  land,  allotted  to 
each  negro,  I  would  be  understood  that  the  planter 
must  be  regulated  by  the  lands  he  plants — there  is 
much  also  in  the  season,  I  plant  the  same  lands  this 
year  I  did  three  years  ago,  which  was  in  1821,  and  I 
am  convinced  I  could,  with  as  much  ease  have  attended 
five  acres  this  year,  as  in  1821  I  could  have  attended 
Hhree  and  a  half. 


LETTER  XIII. 


On  Corn  Planting. 


Pine  Forest,  Barnwell  District,  Feb.  7th,  1824. 

AS  a  competitor  for  some  of  your  premiums  for  the 
present  year,  I  beg  leave  to  state  the  result  of  two 
acres  of  high  land  planted  with  corn,  each  acre  two 
hundred  and  ten  feet  square  ;  the  one  being  old  pasture 
land,  much  exhausted,  but  had  not  been  planted  for  a 
few  years  past. — After  being  well  cowpened  in  the 
fall  and  winter  of  1822  and  '23,  and  ploughed  up 
three  times  during  that  period,  it  was,  on  the  8th  of 
March  last,  planted  with  flint  corn,  flush  on  the  ground; 
the  stalks  stood  in  double  rows,  eighteen  inches  along 
each  row,  and  these  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  then 
an  alley  of  five  feet  and  a  half.  The  stalks  along  the 
tows  were  not  opposite  each  other,  but  formed  an 
irregular  (or  more  correctly  an  Isosceles)  triangle  ;  no 
other  manure  was  used  but  cowpen  manure.  The 
other  acre,  planted  with  gourd  seed  corn,  was  the  same 
which  in  1823  had  made  sixty-four  bushels  and  five 
quarts  of  flint  corn,  this  received  an  additional  ma- 
nuring of  two  hundred  bushels  of  stable  manure,  and 
the  same  quantity  of  cotton  seed  since  that  crop.  This 
was  planted  in  the  same  way  and  on  the  same  day  as 
the  other  acre ;  each  acre  contained  eight  thousand 
stalks  of  this  first  planting;  they  were  often  and  well 
cultivated  with  the  hoe  and  twice  with  the  plough. 
On  the  5th  of  June,  a  second   planting  took  place, 


ON  CORN  PLANTING.  45 

every  four  feet  and  a  half  in  the  centre  of  the  wide 
alley,  and  of  this  two  stalks  were  left  in  each  hill. 
The  rows  stood  nearly  east  and  west,  so  as  to  give 
the  second  crop,  the  benefit  of  the  morning  and  evening 
sun.  The  acre  of  gourd  seed  corn  produced  sixty- 
seven  bushels,  three  pecks,  and  two  quarts,  of  sound 
and  merchantable  corn,  and  one  bushel  and  fifteen 
quarts  of  unripe  and  rotten  corn.  From  the  acre  of  flint 
corn  was  obtained  sixty-three  bushels  and  five  quarts 
of  sound  and  merchantable  corn,  and  two  bushels  and 
five,  quarts  of  unripe  and  rotten  corn.  The  first  plant- 
ings were  gathered  on  the  9th  of  September,  and  the 
second  plantings  on  the  11th  of  December  last.  An 
acre  of  similar  natural  land  of  gourd  seed  corn,  planted 
five  feet  square,  two  stalks  in  each  hill,  produced 
sixteen  bushels  and  twelve  quarts  ;  an  acre  of  old  land, 
made,  of  flint  corn,  ten  bushels  and  a  half. — The  first 
crops  of  the  manured  acres  of  corn  were  remarkably 
sound,  there  being  but  seven  quarts  of  rotten  corn  of 
the  gourd  seed ,  and  only  five  quarts  of  the  flint  corn, 
as  appears  by  the  certificate  I  have  brought  for  your 
inspection. 

Although  I  am  sure  you  will  have  larger  crops  of 
potatoes  offered  for  your  consideration,  I  shall  state 
the  quantity  made  from  one  acre  of  manured  land,  and 
also  the  produce  of  two  other  acres  of  common  land. 
The  first  was  divided  into  sixteen  beds,  each  fifty-one 
feet  square,  and  planted  every  twelve  inches  square 
with  slips.  The  acre  contained  forty  thousand  plants, 
and  made  two  hundred  and  sixty-three  bushels  and  an 
half  and  an  half  peck.  About  an  eighth  of  this  acre 
was  planted  with  what  are  called  sprouts,  obtained  by 
taking  them  from  the  roots  as  soon  as  fit  to  plant  out. 
This  part  of  the  land  was  most  productive  and  made 
at  the  rate  of  nearly  four  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre. 
An  acre  of  common  land  planted  in  the  usual  way  on 
three  and  an  half  feet  beds  with  red  Bermuda  potatoe 
slips,  made  one  hundred  and  ten  bushels  and  one  peck. 


45  ON  CORN  PLANTING. 

the  other  not  far  off,  in  the  same  old  cotton  field  plan- 
tation, planted  the  same  day  with  vines  of  the  yam 
potatoe,  made  exactly  the  same  number  of  bushels. 
The  manured  acre  vvas  the  one  which  made  in  1822, 
two  hundred  and  eighty  bushels  and  three  pecks. 
Each  acre  vvas  measured  in  the  same  manner  as  they 
Were  the  last  year,  viz:  eat  h  half  bushel,  heaped  so 
as  to  be  a  lawful  and  just  measure.  A  certificate  re- 
lative to  each  of  these  crops  is  also  submitted  to  you. 
From  the  first  week  in  June  to  the  end  of  the  season 
we  had  little  rain,  and  the  acres  of  manured  corn  and 
potatoes  suffered  much.  The  corn  fired  to  a  great 
degree,  and  certainly  was  much  injured.  Our  crops 
of  corn  were  good,  especially  those  planted  in  March, 
and  early  in  April.  This  fact  appears  to  demonstrate 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  very  extraordinary  crop  of 
corn  from  one  acre  of  land  in  our  climate — unless  the 
corn  be  planted  universally  thick.  It  appears,  as  far 
as  my  experience  extends,  it  cannot  make  a  great  crop, 
and  if  the  season  be  dry  and  hot,  it  then  suffers  much. 
1  must  state  that  some  experienced  corn  planters  are  of 
opinion  my  acres  were  planted  too  thick  : — my  opinion 
as  to  thick  planting  however,  appears  confirmed  from 
the  last  year's  experience,  for  neither  of  the  acres 
shewed  any  indication  of  being  too  thick,  until  the 
serious  droughts  of  June  and  July.  As  far  as  I  can 
judge  two  good  rains  in  the  early  part  of  June  would 
have  made  the  crops  as  good  as  the  quality  of  the  lands 
would  have  admitted  of:  I  believe  I  can,  with  confi- 
dence state  that  there  is  not  on  record  any  account  of 
a  great  crop  of  corn  which  was  not  planted  universally 
thick,  and  generally  speaking,  the  more  stalks,  the 
greater  the  crop  if  the  land  be  rich.  I  take  the  liberty 
to  state  I  planted  an  acre  of  new  land  with  unusual 
preparation  in  gourd  seed  corn;  this  from  being  also 
thick,  and  containing  about  five  thousand  stalks,  suf- 
fered greatly  by  the  drought,  but  still  made  thirty 
bushels.     One  half  of  this  quantity,  with  the  usual 


ON  CORN  PLANTING.  47 

labor  bestowed  on  our  new  lands,  would  have  been  a 
good  crop.  While  on  the  subject  of  corn  planting, 
permit  me  to  suggest  to  the  consideration  of  our 
society,  the  great  diversity  of  opinion  which  exists 
among  the  best  practical  larmers  even  of  the  same 
neighborhood,  while  some  contend  for  a  small  number 
of  stalks  to  the  acre,  say  one  stalk,  four  or  five  feet 
square,  others  prefer  two  stalks  the  same  distance- 
indeed  the  same  remark  applies  with  .  qual  force  to  the 
other  staples  of  our  state,  cotton  md  rice.  This  con- 
trariety of  opinion  among  the  cultivators  of  each  crop, 
appears  to  be  worthy  of  your  attention,  and  whether  a 
premium  should  not  be  offered  for  the  most  conclusive 
experiment  on  a  few  acres  of  land,  relative  to  each 
staple  of  our  state,  (the  society  however  stating  the 
mode  of  planting  as  regards  the  number  of  stalks  of 
corn  and  cotton,  and  the  distance  of  the  rows  of  rice, 
and  quantity  of  seed  rice  to  each  acre,)  I  leave  to  your 
better  judgments,  with  the  hope,  if  you  do  not  consider 
the  subject  of  sufficient  importance,  to  offer  the  pre- 
miums, you  will  at  least  receive  these  few  observations 
as  an  evidence  of  my  wish  to  promote  and  advance 
the  agriculture  of  our  common  country. 

JOHN  S.  BELLINGER. 
To  William  Washishgton,  Esq, 


LETTER  XIV. 


On  Rice  Planting. 


Poplar  Grove,  St.  Paul's,  March  4th,  1824. 

JLlEAR  SIR — I  should  have  done  myself  the  plea- 
sure of  answering  your  letter  sooner,  but  have  been 
too  much  engaged  with  the  Agricultural  Society,  and 
distributing  the  premiums  awarded  by  them,  (an  account 
of  which  you  will  see  in  the  Mercury  and  Southern 
Patriot  papers.)  It  will  afford  me  much  pleasure  to 
suppose  that  I  could  suggest  any  plan  or  mode  of 
planting  rice,  that  would  benefit  you,  or  at  all  aid  the 
cause  of  agriculture,  in  which  we  are  all  so  materially 
concerned  ;  however,  such  as  it  is,  and  such  as  I  prac- 
tice, I  give  you  with  pleasure.  In  the  first  place  then, 
your  rice  land,  banks,  ditches,  and  quarter  drains  being 
in  good  order,  and  turned  up  with  a  hoe  or  plough, 
the  first  step  is,  about  the  latter  end  of  February,  to 
flood  the  fields  deep,  but  not  so  deep,  as  to  injure  the 
cross  banks,  the  wind  operating  upon  the  water,  creates 
a  wave,  and  washes  them  considerably  ;  my  object  in 
flooding,  is  to  destroy  vegetation.  The  water  is  kept 
on  until  about  the  25th  of  March,  which  is  the  time  I 
generally  begin  to  plant:  the  day  before  I  commence, 
the  water  is  turned  off  the  squares,  leaving  a  beautiful 
black  rich  appearance,  and  not  the  least  symptom  of 
vegetation,  the  same  process  is  observed  in  every  square, 
as  I  progress  until  I  finish;  making  no  division  in  my 
planting.    With  regard  to  the  crop  ripening  upon  you  at 


ON  RICE  PLANTING.  49 

once,  it  is  altogether  a  mistake,  as  matters  can  always 
be  so  regulated  as  to  backen  a  field  of  rice,  by  keeping 
on  the  water. 

My  fields  are  at  present  deep  flowed,  and  will 
remain  so,  until  the  time  specified  above.  In  planting, 
I  generally  put  eighty  rows  in  a  quarter,  and  two 
bushels  of  seed  to  an  acre,  making  a  deep  and  narrow 
trench. 

After  the  rice  is  up,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  untouch- 
ed, until  the  hoe  is  wanted;  when  all  hands  are  turned 
in,  with  orders  to  hoe  deep,  turn  the  sod  well  over, 
and  be  careful  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
young  rice;  as  soon  as  each  field  is  hoed  through,  it  is 
immediately  flooded  deep,  covering  the  rice  entirely. 

In  that  state  it  is  allowed  to  remain  three  days,  or 
if  the  rice  is  well  advanced,  five  days;  when  the  water 
is  eased  off,  until  the  tops  of  the  rice,  and  a  general 
verdure  are  seen  through  the  field ;  the  trunk  door  is 
then  closed,  and  the  water  kept  in  until  the  rice 
obtains  a  vigorous  growth,  which  it  will  do,  in  the 
course  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  in  which  state  it  must 
remain  until  the  grass  begins  to  make  its  way ;  when 
the  water  must  be  let  off,  and  the  hoe  immediately 
applied;  each  negro  can  with  ease  get  through  half  an 
acre ;  as  soon  as  finished,  and  before  the  grass  has 
time  to  recover  itself,  let  the  trunk  be  opened  and  the 
field  again  flooded,  which  may  be  kept  on  until  harvest, 
occasionally  shifting  the  water.  Should,  however, 
the  grass  vegetate,  which  it  often  does  from  improper 
hoeing,  the  same  process  must  be  observed ;  I  would 
advise  by  all  means,  to  handpick  all  the  weeds  and 
foxtail  grasses,  until  the  rice  begins  to  blossom,  after 
which  time,  nothing  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the 
field.  It  has  been  a  very  prevalent  practice  with 
many  planters,  to  keep  on  the  water  until  about  three 
days,  before  they  begin  to  cut  the  rice,  I  have  latterly 
been  induced  to  let  off  the  water,  as  soon  as  I  am 
satisfied  of  the  grain  being  filled,  which  is  about  a 
7 


I 


SO  ON  RICE  PLANTING. 

fortnight  or  three  weeks  previous  to  the  harvest;  and 
I  continue  the  practice,  as  I  think  the  water  kept  on 
so  Ions  injures  the  grain,  inasmuch  as  it  tends  not  only 
to  soften  it,  but  also  to  discolor  it.  These  are  the 
outlines  that  I  have  observed  for  some  years  past,  and 
ivhich  I  shall  continue  to  follow  up,  until  I  see  some 
good  reason  to  the  contrary. 

With  regard  to  the  Nondescript,  you  will  find  a 
particular  account  of  it  in  the  American  Farmer ',  Vol. 
II,  No.  10,  page  76;  the  mode,  however,  I  have 
adopted,  is  to  have  cuttings  fourteen  inches  long,  and 
plant  as  thick  as  possible,  inserting  them  eight  inches 
deep,  and  keep  down  the  grass  the  first  year,  frequently 
Stirring  the  earth,  otherwise  it  will  not  succeed. 
Neglect  has  been  the  cause  of  so  many  persons  failing. 
1  shall  be  happy  to  hear  at  a  future  day,  of  the  result 
of  some  of  your  experiments  in  rice  planting,  and 
ivhich  mode  you  most  approve  of. 

I  should  be  happy  if  you  would  communicate  to  the 
Agricultural  Society,  which  will  be  a  good  channel 
to  dissminate  its  utility. 
I  remain, 

Respectfully, 

CHARLES  E.  ROWAND. 

\Tq  William  Washington,  Esq, 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


MavituUuvul  sortttj?  of  souu^GraroUn*, 


DECORTICATOR. 


XN  pursuance  of  a  Resolution  passed  by  this  Society,  appointi«$ 
a  Committee  to  test  the  utility  of  the  Instrument  termed  the  Decor- 
ticator,  which  has  been  sent  to  this  Society  by  Mr.  Pomroy:  youp 
Committee  have  made  such  experiments  as  they  were  able,  and  now 
respectfully  Report : — 

Your  Committee  have  been  impressed  with  the  belief,  that  the 
object  of  the  Society,  in  making  this  appointment,  was  solely  to  give 
a  fair  trial  to  the  Decorticator,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  practical 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  it.  And  not  that  they 
were  to  enter  into  an  examination  also  of  the  theories  advanced  by 
the  inventor,  or  other  writers,  on  the  Cotton  Plant ;  they  have, 
therefore,  thought  proper  to  confine  their  remarks  to  the  former; 
leaving  the  deduction  that  may  be  drawn  from  them,  to  be  offered 
to  the  Society  by  those  who  have  more  experience,  and  are  better 
qualified  to  perform  the  task. 

In  making  experiments,  the  points  which  struck  your  Committee, 
as  being  most  important  to  be  considered,  were : 

1st.     The  facility  of  operating. 

2d.  The  suitableness  of  such  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
negroes. 

3d.     The  effects  arising  to  the  plants  from  the  operation. 

1st.  As  to  the  facility  of  operating:.  —  Your  Committee  had  dQcor- 
(jc,ated  in  their  presence  a  task  row  of  cotton  containing  about  ninety 


52 


REPORT  ON 


plants.  The  operator  was  a  young  man  active  and  willing  to  try  the 
experiment.  He  was  also  accustomed  to  the  use  of  instruments, 
having  been  regularly  brought  up  as  a  gardener ;  and  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  grafting  and  budding  fruit  trees.  The  time  taken  in  opera- 
ting on  this  row  was  eighteen  minutes;  at  this  rate,  allowing  ninety  to 
be  the  average  number  of  plants  on  a  row,  and  twenty-one  rows  in  a 
task,  it  would  have  taken  him  at  least  three  days  to  decorticate  one 
acre. 

The  next  experiment  was  made  with  a  lad  between  eighteen  and 
nineteen  years  of  age,  a  common  field  hand,  but  well  disposed. 
He  was  steadily  employed,  and  was  thirty-five  minutes  engaged  in 
decorticating  one  task  row,  containing  one  hundred  and  seventeen 
plants.  Seventy-six  only  of  this  number,  however,  were  operated 
on,  in  consequence  of  the  balance  being  too  small  for  the  tnstrurm  nt ; 
admitting  even,  that  an  hundred  plants  were  the  average  nilmbei  dmt 
would  be  to  be  decorticated  on  each  row,  at  the  rate  of  thim-five 
minutes  to  the  row,  it  would  have  taken  the  operator,  at  least  six 
days  to  decorticate  one  acre, allowing  him  eight  hours  a  day. 

The  greatest  difficulty  experienced  by  the  operator,  is  the  necessi- 
ty of  his  getting*  down  on  his  knees  and  up  again,  so  repeatedly ; 
or  pushing  himself  along  on  his  hands  and  knees,  from  plant  to 
plant,  in  order  to  get  readily  at  the  part  of  the  main  stalk  to  be 
operated  on,  which,  according  to  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Pomroy, 
should  be,  below  the  lowest  branches. 

Again.— -When  the  plants  are  left  so  near  together,  as  two  in  a 
hole,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  free  use  of  the  hand  is  very  much 
interrupted,  so  that  it  would  be  impracticable,  at  a  single  operation, 
to  decorticate  or  detatch  the  annular  strip  of  Dark,  as  stated  by  Mr. 
Pomroy ;  for  the  instrument  soon  comes  in  contact  with  the  next 
plant,  which  makes  it  necessary,  not  only  to  change  it  from  one  hand 
to  the  other,  but  to  alter  the  position  of  the  body  also ;  this  at  once 
destroys  the  regular  and  steady  motion  required,  both  for  expedition 
and  to  prevent  too  great  injury  to  the  bark.  This  difficulty  would 
not  be  obviated  by  leaving  only  one  plant  in  a  hole,  as  is  often  prac- 
tised, also,  as  the  low  horizontal  branches  from  one  plant  would  most 
generally  extend  themselves  until  they  reached  those  coming  from 
another,  which  would  present  the  same  obstacle  as  above  stated. 

It  might  be  said,  that  by  practice,  the  persons  using  the  decorticator 
would  become  more  familiarized  to  it,  and  consequently,  use  it  with 
more  expedition.  However  true  this  might  be,  still,  it  is  not  to  be 
presumed  that  many  would  attain  greater  expertness  than  was 
exercised  by  the  persgn  performing  the  first  experiment.  Besides,  in 
all  efforts,  merely  experimental,  more  or  less  energy  is  generally 
exhibited.  The  novelty  of  a  process,  gives  an  elasticity  to  the  mind, 
which  leads  to  exertions  that  would  never  be  made  in  common  and 
ordinary  labor. 

2d.  The  suitableness  of  such  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
negroes. — The  operation  of  decortication  is  a  very  delicate  one.  It 
requires  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  unnecessary  injury  to  the  plant. 
To  decorticate  in  a  proper  manner,  that  is,  to  make  the  necessary 
incision,  and  effectually  remove  the  bark,  it  would  be  essentially 


THE  DECORTICATOR.  53 

necessary  that  the  instrument  to  be  used,  should  always  be  kept  in 
the  best  possible  order  and  condition.  Notwithstanding  the  inge- 
nuity Mr.  Fomroy  has  exhibited  in  the  invention  of  the  deeorticator, 
and  however  well  adapted  this  instrument  may  be,  for  the  performance 
of  ilie  operation  intended  by  the  inventor,  still,  we  presume,  there 
is  no  one  in  this  country,  from  his  knowledge  of  the  character  of  our 
negroes,  who  would  suppose  for  a  moment  it  would  be  an  instrument 
suitable  in  their  hands.  Only  observe  their  sickles,  hoes  and  axes, 
these  alone,  would  be  abundant  proof,  to  satisfy  even  those  who 
are  least  acquainted  with  them — what  then,  would  be  the  condition 
of  so  complicated  and  delicate  an  instrument  as  the  decorticator, 
after  being  a  few  weeks  in  the  possession  of  even  the  most  careful 
Of  these  people.  It  is  an  instrument  that  would  require  to  be 
always  in  the  same  order,  as  when  received  from  the  hands  of  the 
artist,  so  far  as  to  its  sharpness,  freeness  from  rust,  and  the  graduation 
of  the  horizontal  blades.  Therefore,  whenever  this  instrument 
would  require  to  be  sharpened,  so  delicate  would  be  the  operation  in 
order  to  preserve  its  true  character,  that  no  common  negro  would 
be  capable  of  doing  it. 

With  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  decorticator,  your  Com- 
mittee observed  one  objection,  which  they  concluded  did  not  strike 
Mr.  Pornroy,  and  which,  probably,  would  never  occur  to  him,  unless 
he  makes  as  frequent  use  of  the  same  instrument  as  has  been  done 
by  your  Committee-  The  objection  we  allude  to,  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced dn  the  springs  by  the  gradual  and  continued  insinuation  of  the 
juices  and  the  finest  particles  of  the  inner  bark,  between  the  knives 
and  springs.  This  circumstance  was  discovered  by  a  gentleman, 
who,  on  perceiving  that  the  bark  was  not  as  readily  detached  after 
several  operations,  as  at  first,  was  induced  to  take  the  instrument  to 
peices  and  examine  it.  He  soon  discovered  that  the  accumulation 
of  the  sap  and  finest  particles  of  the  inner  bark,  was  so  great,  as  to 
prevent  the  movement  of  the  springs  altogether. 

3d.  The  effects  arising  to  the  plants  from  the  operation. — Mr. 
Pomroy,  observes  that  "  the  most  important  point  to  be  ascertained, 
is  the  period  most  suitable  to  obstruct  the  sap,  in  order  to  promote 
the  highest  state  of  improvement  in  the  crop,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
guard  effectually  against  the  rot."  This  circumstance  was  not  lost 
sight  of  by  your  Committee.  They  have  to  regret,  however,  that 
notwithstanding  the  trials  they  have  made,  they  are  yet  unable  to 
afford  any  satisfactory  information  on  that  point.  Their  first  expe- 
riment was  made  about  the  latter  part  of  July,  when  the  plants 
generally  had  attained  a  size  to  admit  of  being  operated  on  with  the 
decorticator  ;  for  there  were  some,  even  then,  too  small  to  be  grasped 
by  the  instrument.  Before  the  operations  were  commenced,  two 
rows  of  cotton  were  selected  as  near  alike  as  possible,  in  point  of 
quality ;  the  one  to  be  decorticated,  and  the  other  to  remain  untouch- 
ed, as  standard  for  comparison.  The  operation,  though  performed 
by  an  intelligent  negro,  was,  nevertheless,  closely  inspected  by  your 
Committee. 

The  cotton  was  examined  two  days  after  the  operation,  but  no 
visible  alteration  was  to  be  perceived.     About  a  week  after,  it  was 


54  REPORT  ON 

examined  again,  when-  a  very  considerable  change  was  instantly 
observed,  so  much  so,  as  to  enable  one  to  walk  directly  to  the  row 
that  had  been  decorticated,  without  any  other  mark  than  the  appear- 
ance of  the  plants  themselves  ;  the  color  of  the  leaves  was  generally 
changed  from  the  original  healthy  green,  to  that  of  a  pale  and  sickly 
hue.  The  plants  continued  to  flower  however.  There  were  several 
stalks  entirely  broken  off,  by  a  slight  wind  that  was  experienced  a 
few  days  after  the  operation. 

On  the  10th  of  August,  this  cotton  was  again  examined,  when  ifc 
was  found  to  have  assumed  every  appearance  of  rust  The  leaves 
were  of  a  very  yellowish  cast,  and  specked  over  with  red  spots. 
The  plants  were  decidedly  less  vigorous  than  they  were — the 
leaves  rather  hanging  than  otherwise — and  though  the  plants  con- 
tinued to  flower,  still  the  blossoms  were  less  numerous  than  on  the 
standard  row — and  again,  there  was  a  good  deal  of  the  second 
growth  belowT  the  excision  on  every  plant,  which  was  not  perceptible 
at  that  time  on  the  plants  on  the  adjoining  row. 

On  the  18th  of  August,  this  peice  of  cotton  was  again  inspected, 
when  it  was  distinctly  perceived,  that  still  further  changes  had  taken 
place.  Many  stalks  had  been  broken  off,  at  the  part  where  the 
excision  was  made,  and  the  vegetation  of  the  remaining  plants  had 
gradually  declined — not  more  cotton  had  opened  on  it,  than  on  the 
neighboring  rows.  Since  the  18th,  the  state  of  this  cotton  has  been 
observed  from  time  to  time,  when  nothing  worthy  of  remark  was 
noticed  but  the  gradual  decline  of  the  plants.  When  seen  last, 
which  was  a  few  days  ago,  every  plant  that  had  been  effectually 
decorticated,  was  completely  divested  of  every  appearance  of  life. 
There  were  a  few  bolls  remaining  on  the  branches ;  but  these  were 
shrivilled  up,  and  appeared  to  have  grown  little  or  none,  since 
decorticated. 

On  the  16th  of  August,  your  Committee,  had  decorticated  again, 
a  row  of  the  green  seed  cotton.  This  cotton  had,  at  this  time, 
attained  a  growth  of  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet,  from  the  top 
of  the  bed,  and  was  thought  very  promising.  The  number  of  pods 
supposed  to  be  matured,  were  about  one  fourth ;  many  had  opened  in 
different  parts  of  the  field ;  the  rot  had  commenced  its  ravages 5 
but  there  was  not  the  least  appearance  of  rust.  Four  days  after  the 
operation  was  performed,  (20th,)  a  high  wind  broke  off  thirty- two 
stalks  of  the  plants  that  had  been  decorticated  :  while  those  on  the 
neighboring  rows  were  only  bent  down.  On  the  24th,  all  the  bolls 
that  were  considered  as  having  arrived  at  maturity  on  the  16th,  were 
found  burst  open,  and  some  few  others ;  but  the  young  pods  and 
forms  had  dwindled,  and  the  whole  plant  had  assumed  a  sickly 
appearance;  several  pods  had  been  affected  by  the  rot.  On  the  10th 
of  September,  a  few  of  those  pods  that  had  shrunk,  were  found 
jppen ;  but  the  rest  with  the  forms  had  dropped  off. 

Since  the  commencement  of  these  experiments,  the  decorticator 
has  been  loaned  to  two  or  three  gentlemen,  with  the  view  to  make 
experiments  also.  Two  have  made  the  following  remarks:  "The 
u  decorticator  was  tried  on  sea  island  cotton.  Some  stalks  were  but 
"  partly  decorticated,  these  appeared  stationary  in  their  growth  for 


THE  DECORTICATOR.  55 

f*  some  time,  and  the  color  of  the  leaves  was  lighter,  but  the  wounds 
"  closed ;  and  when  last  observed,  there  was  no  visible  difference  be- 
"  tween  those  that  had  been,  and  those  that  had  not  been  decorticated. 
"  Those  which  had  the  bark  taken  off  entirely,  around  from  the 
u  stalk,  took  the  rust,  &c."  Again,  "  The  decorticator  has  been 
"  used  at  different  times,  both  on  the  green  and  black  seed  plants, 
w  growing  in  various  soils,  it  neither  stopped  the  rot,  rust,  nor  second 
u  growth." 

It  might  not  be  improper  to  remark  here,  that  in  all  instances 
where  the  branches  were  decorticated,  they  shared  the  same  fate 
with  the  main  stems. 

However  just,  Mr.  Pomroy's  theory  may  be,  as  to  the  nature  and 
causes  of  the  rot  or  rust,  in  cotton,  his  instrument  has  proved  truly 
adverse  to  the  arriving  at  any  conclusive  results,  as  to  the  best  mode 
of  checking  these  diseases.  From  the  unvaried  effects  produced  on 
the  plants  by  the  decorticator,  both  branches  and  leaves  have  been 
soon  rendered  unfit  for  taking  any  part  in  the  general  process  of  the 
circulation  of  the  sap.  The  sap  does  not  seem,  after  the  operation 
of  decortication,  to  take  exactly  the  course  Mr.  Pomroy  would 
suppose.  It  appears  gradually  to  desert  the  leaves  and  branches, 
leaving  them  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  turns  its  whole  stream 
into  a  different  channel,  supporting  a  most  vigorous  second  growth 
from  below  the  excision.  We  cannot  account  for  this  change  in  the 
circulation  of  the  sap,  in  any  other  way  than  the  following  : — That 
in  consequence  of  the  check  to  the  usual  descent  of  the  sap,  the 
various  tubes  through  which  the  sap  ascends  become  filled,  which 
produces  a  stagnation,  and  that  in  order  to  give  vent  to  the  continued 
accumulation  of  fresh  sap  from  below,  a  second  growth  shoots  forth. 
This  idea  seems  strengthened  by  the  circumstance  of  the  gradual 
decay  of  the  leaves  and  upper  branches,  which  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion at  on<  e,  that  they  no  longer  receive  due  nourishment  from  an 
ascending  sap. 

Mr.  Pomroy  says,  that  "  the  bark  ought  always  to  be  so  separated, 
"  as  to  prevent  re-union."  Your  Committee,  from  the  experiments 
they  have  made,  cannot  but  feel  convinced,  that  decortication  carried 
to  such  an  extent,  must  always  prove  highly  injurious.  It  seems  to 
produce  too  sudden  and  powerful  a  change  in  the  habit  of  plants* 
to  admit  of  it.  In  most  cases  where  there  was  the  least  particle  of 
the  liber  or  inner  baik  left,  there  was  more  or  less,  a  re-union  of  the 
cortex,  which  preserved  the  plants.  But  in  every  instance,  where 
every  part  of  the  alburnum  was  effectually  laid  bare,  the  part  of  the 
plant,  above  the  excision,  perished,  and  was  generally  broken  off. 
There  seemed  a  brittleness  in  the  alburnum,  which  required  support 
'from  the  elasticity  of  the  cortex  or  liber,  to  resist  the  wind. 


JAMES  CUTHBERT.   ?  n 

JOHN  D.  LEGARE,     \  Committee: 


%ARJ*«ston,  Oet.  19th,  1824, 


EXTRACTS. 


[FROM  SIR  JOHN  SINCAIR'S  CODE  OF  AGRICULTURE.} 


On  the  means  of  improving  the  Agricultural  state  of 
a  Country. 


/'Agriculture  is  the  great  art,  which  every  government  ought  to  protect  :— 
every  proprietor  of  land  to  practise  :■— and  every  inquirer  into  nature  to 
improve. 


Introductory  observations  on  the  importance  of  Agriculture* 

X  HE  prosperity  of  a  nation,  possessing;  an  extent  of  territory, 
sufficient  for  maintaining  its  inhabitants,  chiefly  depends;  1.  Upon 
the  quantity  of  surplus  produce  derived  from  the  soil,  after  defraying 
the  expenses  of  cultivation;  2.  Upon  that  surplus  produce,  obtaining 
such  a  price  at  market,  as  will  encourage  re-production ;  and,  3. 
Upon  the  cultivator  having  such  a  command  of  capital,  as  may 
enable  him  to  carry  on  his  business  with  energy. 

1.  The  surplus  produce  arises,  from  that  inestimable  quality 
possessed  by  the  soil,  which  enables  it,  in  proportion  as  it  is  skilfully 
managed,  to  furnish  maintenance,  for  a  greater  number  of  persons, 
than  are  required  for  its  cultivation.  Thence  proceed,  the  profits  of 
the  farmer ; — the  rents  of  the  landlord ; — the  subsistence  of  the 
manufacturer  and  of  the  merchant; — and  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  income  of  the  state.  That  surplus  marketable  produce,  therefore, 
is  justly  considered  to  be,  the  principal  source  of  political  power, 
and  of  personal  enjoyment.     When  that  surplus  produce  does  not 

8 


5§  ON  THE  MEANS  OF 

exist,  (unless  in  circumstances  of  a  very  peculiar  nature),  there 
can  be  no  flourishing  towns; — no  military  or  naval  force; — none  of 
the  superior  arts ; — none  of  the  finer  manufactures ; — no  learning  ; — 
pone  of  the  conveniences  and  luxuries  of  foreign  countries  ; — and 
none  of  that  cultivated  and  polished  society  at  home,  which  not  only 
elevates  and  dignifies  the  individual,  but  also  extends  its  beneficial 
influence,  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  the  community.  What 
exertions  ought  not.  then  to  be  made,  and  what  encouragement  ought 
not  to  be  given,  to  preserve,  or  to  increase,  so  essential  a  resource, 
the  foundation  of  our  national  prosperity  ! 

In  order  to  form  some  idea,  of  the  amount  of  the  suplus  marketa- 
ble produce,  on  very  different  soils,  under  the  judicious  system  of 
cultivation,  the  following  statements  were  drawn  up  by  two  intelli- 
gent farmers,  respecting  that  amount,  in  their  respective  occupations, 
the  one  possessing  land  principally  clay,  the  other  a  turnip  soil. 

Mr.  Brown  of  Markle,  in  East  Lothain,  occupies  a  farm  of  670 
English  acres,  on  which,  in  consequence  of  almost  all  his  servants 
being  married,  there  is  a  population  of  91  persons  of  all  ages.  The 
produce  of  80  English  acres  is  consumed  on  the  farm,  or  given  to 
the  servants  as  wages,  as  nearly  the  whole  of  them  are  paid  in  grain, 
and  have  cows  kept  for  their  use  both  summer  and  winter.  About 
90  acres  are  required  for  raising  corn,  clover,  tares,  and  hay,  for  the 
working  stock,  and  45  acres  to  furnish  seed  corn.  One  hundred 
acres  are  in  an  unproductive  state,  that  is,  in  summer  fallow,  or  grass 
for  young  horses  not  employed  in  labour,  and  in  fences,  roads,  stack- 
yards, or  devoted  to  purposes  from  which  no  direct  produce  is 
returned.  Four  acres  are  given  to  the  servants,  for  raising  flax  as 
a  part  of  their  wages ;  in  all  319  acres;  so  there  only  remain  351 
acres  for  raising  surplus  produce.  Of  these,  about  120  acres  are  in 
pasture  grass  for  sheep  and  cattle,  in  clover  for  soiling,  or  in  turnips. 
This  leaves  231  acres  for  raising  disposable  grain,  which  may  be 
stated  at  nine  hundred  and  fifty  quarters,  on  an  average  of  seasons. 
On  the  whole,  he  calculates,  the  surplus  marketable  produce  of 
his  farm,  at  eleven  bushels  and  a  fourth  of  corn,  and  one  stone 
7  lbs,  pf  butcher's  meat,  (Amsterdam  weight,)  for  every  English  acre 
In  his  possession, 

Mr.  Walker,  of  Mellendean,  in  Roxburghshire,  on  the  extensive 
tract  of  arable  land,  he  cultivates,  (2866  English  acres,)  with  a 
population  of  250  souls  depending  on  its  cultivation  for  subsistence, 
sends,  of  surplus  produce,  to  market,  3551  quarters  of  grain,  and 
700Q  stone  of  butcher's  meat ;  or,  per  acre,  ten  bushels  of  grain,  and 
two  stone  seven  pounds  of  butcher's  meat,  14  pounds  to  the  stone, 
and  1 6  ounces  to  the  pound. 

To  these  estimates  of  surplus  produce,  there  are  to  be  added,  the 
hides,  the  skins,  the  wool,  the  tallow,  and  a  variety  of  other  articles, 
the  basis,  of  many  important  manufactures,  the  value  of  which, 
though  it  is  impossible  to  give  its  amount  correctly,  from  its  great 
uncertainty,  and  the  fluctuation  of  prices,  must  be  very  considerable. 

If  such  are  the  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  cultivating  of  the 
soil,  (and  the  facts  are  established  beyond  contradiction,)  what  source, 
either  pf  domestic  industry,  or  of  foreign  commerce,  can  in  any 


IMPROVING  A  COUNTRY.  59 

respect  be  put  in  competion,  with  such  a  mine  of  wealth,  When 
extended  over  a  great  empire  ? 

2.  Out  the  prosperity  of  a  nation,  as  already  observed,  depends 
hot  only  on  having  a  great  marketable  surplus,  but  also  on  its 
disposable  produce,  fetching  such  a  price,  as  to  encourage  re-produc- 
tion. This  was  the  case  during  the  last  war ;  and  hence  the  nation 
was  enabled  to  persevere  in  it  so  many  years,  and  finally  to  bring  it 
to  a  successful  conclusion.  By  means  of  a  great  surplus  of  agricul* 
tural  productions,  sold  at  a  high  price,  the  profits  of  the  farmer,  and 
the  rents  of  the  landlord,  were  doubled;  these  two  classes  were  thus 
placed  in  a  condition,  to  pay  very  heavy  taxes  to  government ; — to 
engage  in  great  undertakings  of  a  private  description; — to  furnish' 
employment  to  labourers,  to  whom  the  price  of  bread  was  of  little 
consequence,  while  work  was  always  to  be  had,  at  wages  propor^ 
tioned  to  the  price  of  corn ; — and  to  consume  immense  quantities 
of  merchandize,  and  articles  of  manufacture,  by  means  of  which, 
those  two  branches  of  national  industry  were  supported,  when  they 
were  in  a  great  measure  deprived  of  foreign  markets.  History  does 
not  furnish  an  example  of  a  nation,  which  abroad,  made  such  incre- 
dible exertions,  while  at  home,  so  many  millions  of  people,  enjoyed 
all  the  necessaries,  the  comforts,  and  most  of  them  the  luxuries  of 
life  ;  the  whole  originating  in  prosperous  agriculture,  without  which, 
our  manufacturing  industry,  our  commercial  relations^  or  the  neces- 
sary operations  of  our  finances,  could  not  have  been  carried  on. 

3.  Nor  is  it  alone  sufficient,  that  the  faimer  should  have  a  price* 
adequate  to  promote  re-production :  he  should  likewise  have,  such 
a  command  of  capital,  (and  if  it  must  be  borrowed,  at  a  moderate 
rate  of  interest),  as  will  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  business  with 
energy.  Indeed,  when  that  takes  place,  it  lays  the  foundation  of 
general  prosperity.  It  will  not  be  disputed,  that  a  hundred  persons 
may  be  put  to  the  greatest  inconvenience,  because  one  individual, 
at  the  head  of  a  chain  of  circulation,  cannot  pay  one  hundred 
pounds.  Enable  him  to  pay  that  sum,  and  progressively,  those 
connected  with  him  are  relieved.  "  But  it  is  the  farmer  who  is  the 
first  link,  in  the  great  chain  of  national  circulation. "  When  he  is 
supplied  with  money,  he  is  enabled  to  pay  his  rents  regularly; — the 
landlord  is  thus  enabled,  not  only  to  employ  a  number  of  labourers, 
but  to  purchase  goods,  from  the  British  manufacturer,  and  the  foreign 
merchant;  the  latter  finding  thus  a  demand  for  foreign  goods,  is 
enabled  to  return,  to  export  British  manufactures  to  foreign  markets ;— v 
by  means  of  an  abundant  circulation  also,  the  revenue  is*  paid  without 
difficulty,  it  is  regularly  remitted,  and  furnishes  the  means  of  paying 
the  dividends  due  to  the  stock-holders ;  the  credit  of  the  country  is 
thus  maintained,  and  every  class  in  the  community  prospers.  The 
whole,  it  is  evident,  originates  with  the  farmer,  the  first  link,  in  the 
great  chain  of  circulation,  whose  basis  is  the  plough. 

The  superior  importance  of  agriculture,  ha*  been  recently  proved, 
in  a  manner  so  convincing,  and  unanswerable,  that  the  question 
ought,  now,  to  be  forever  put  to  rest.  It  is  well  known,  that  all  the 
resources  of  the  country  were  put  to  the  test,  by  the  strict  manner, 
1»  which  the  tax  on  income  was  exacted.    By  analysing,  therefore^ 


60  ON  THE  MEANS  OF 

the  produce  of  that  tax,  under  all  its  several  branches,  the  real 
foundations  of  our  national  wealth  and  prosperity,  may  be  ascer- 
tained with  a  degree  of  correctness,  previously  unattainable.  The 
result  ot  the  inquiry  is  as  follows : 

1.  Taxes  on  1  nded  property, <£4,2f>7,247 

2.  Ditto  on  the  farmers  or  occupiers  of  land, 2,176.228 

Total  agricultural  classes, £6,43 3,475 

S.     Taxes  on  commercial  property,    -  -  .£2,000,000 

4.     Ditto  on  professions, 1,021,187 

3,021,187 

Difference  in  favor  of  the  agricultural  }      £3  412  288 
classes, -_>.--„-.-£  '       ' 

Hence  it  appears,  that  during  that  eventful  period,  when  the 
ignorant,  and  the  prejudiced  supposed,  we  existed  solely  by  trade, 
and  that  we  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  nation  of  shopkeepers,  it 
was  the  wealth  arising  from  the  productions  of  the  soil  that  chiefly 
enabled  us  to  go  on;  it  was  successful  agriculture,  that  furnished  us 
with  the  means  of  carrying  on  the  contest,  and  of  bringing  it  to  a 
triumphant  conclusion. 

Nor  is  this  subject  to  be  dwelt  on  solely  in  a  financial  point  of 
view.  Let  it  at  the  same  time  be  considered,  that  it  is  the  land 
which  furnishes  the  raw  materials  of  the  greater  part  of  our  manu- 
factures; that  the  proprietors  and  occupiers  of  land,  supply  the  best 
markets  to  our  manufacturers  and  merchants ;  and  that  through 
them,  the  greater  part  of  all  other  professions  gain  their  livelihood. 
Numbers  of  fundholders  are  little  aware,  that  upon  the  prosperity  of 
agriculture,  the  regular  payments  of  their  dividends  must  principally 
depend.  For  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  as  the  property  tax  was 
imposed  on  all  the  classes  of  the  community,  in  proportion  to  their 
wealth  or  income,  hence,  the  taxes  payable  in  every  other  ivay,  by 
each  class,  and  every  individual  in  each  class,  who  spent  his  income, 
must  be  paid,  in  nearly  the  same  proportion,  as  the  tax  on  property. 

It  Cannot  at  the  same  time,  be  doubted,  that  the  agricultural  classes, 
are  much  indebted  to  those  employed  in  trade  and  manufactures,  for 
consuming  the  produce  of  the  soil  But  still,  it  is  the  surplus 
productions  of  agriculture,  raised  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
owners  of  the  soil,  and  by  the  skill  and  industry  of  those  who  occupy 
it,  which  constitute  the  real  basis  of  our  national  prosperity ;  and 
exported  manufactures,  are  nothing  else,  but  so  much  beef,  mutton, 
wheat,  barley,  &c.  converted  into  another,  and  more  convenient 
shape.  Where  manufacturers,  however,  are  maintained,  by  the 
productions  of  foreign  industry,  and  in  particular,  when  the  articles 
they  manufacture,  are  produced  from  foreign  raw  materials,  as  fine 
wool:  instead  of  being  an  advantage,  they  have  the  effect  of  depre- 
ciating the  value  of  domestic  agricultural  productions,  and  bringing 
foreign  art  *  into  competition  with  them,  by  means  of  British 
capital.  The  paltry  profits  of  the  manufacture,  are  nothing  com- 
pared, to  the  mischiefs  which  are  thus  occasioned,  to  the  real  sources 
of  our  prosperity. 


IMPROVING  A  COUNTRY.  61 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  statements,  will  satisfy  every  impartial 
individual,  that  the  strength  and  resources  of  this  country,  principally 
arise  from  the  productions  of  the  soil ; — that  the  land,  is  the  basis 
of  our  national  wealth,  and  that  on  the  amount,  and  the  value  of  its 
productions,  our  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  the  payment  of 
the  public  creditors,  must  in  a  great  measure  depend.  The  revenues 
of  the  church ; — by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  payments  to  the 
poor ; — and  various  other  public  charges,  are  likewise  payable  from 
the  same  source.  Hence,  nothing  can  be  more  impolitic,  than  to 
neglect  the  adoption  of  any  measure,  by  which  the  interests  of  agri- 
culture can  be  promoted  5  or  more  hazardous,  than  to  take  any  step, 
by  which  its  prosperity  can  be  impaired,  or  those  who  live  by  it, 
impoverished,  much  less  brought  to  ruin. 

The  means  therefore,  by  which  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  a 
country  can  best  be  promoted,  merit  our  peculiar  attention. 

It  has  long  been  considered,  as  an  incontrovertible  proposition, 
and  approaching  to  the  nature  of  an  axiom,  "  That  whoever  could 
make  two  ears  of  corn,  ©r  two  blades  of  grass  grow  upon  a  spot, 
were  only  one  grew  before,  would  deserve  better  of  mankind,  and 
do  more  essential  service  to  his  country,  than  the  whole  race  of 
politicians  put  together  " 

There  never  was  a  greater  instance  of  sophistry,  than  this  doctrine 
of  Swift's,  who  seems  not  to  have  been  at  all  aware,  of  the  immense 
benefits,  conferred  upon  agriculture,  by  a  judicious  system  of  civil 
policy.  In  fact,  the  prosperity  of  agriculture,  depends  upon  the 
politician.  The  better  and  the  more  equitable  the  civil  policy  of  a 
country,  the  more  perfect  will  its  agriculture  become.  Those 
politicians  or  statesmen,  therefore,  who,  by  removing  every  obstacle, 
and  furnishing  every  proper  encouragement  to  agriculture,  promote 
its  advancement,  have  a  higher  claim  to  the  gratitude  of  mankind, 
than  those  who  have  merely  performed  a  secondary  or  practical  part, 
which  part,  they  never  could  have  performed  at  all,  but  under  the 
protection  of  wise  laws,  regularly  administered,  and  executed  with  . 
impartiality  and  vigour. 

This  leads  to  the  most  important  discussion,  perhaps,  in  the  whole 
range  of  political  inquiry,  and  respecting  which,  the  most  ill-founded 
prejudices  are  unfortunately  entertained,  namely,  "What  public 
encouragements,  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture,  ought  a  wise 
government  to  bestow  ? 

Many  able  men,  reasoning  solely  from  the  abuses  to  which  the 
system  of  encouragement  is  liable.,  have  thence  been  induced  to 
condemn  this  policy,  and  to  recommend,  that  of  giving  to  individuals, 
the  entire  freedom  of  exercising  their  industry,  in  their  own  way, 
without  any  legislative  interference  whatever.  They  dwell  much, 
on  the  reply  once  made  by  some  of  the  principal  merchants  of 
France,  to  the  celebrated  Colbert,  who  having  asked,  what  govern* 
ment  could  do  for  them  t  was  answered^  "  Laissez  nous  faire," 
( Let  us  alone.)  On  the  other  hand,  they  totally  reprobate  the  mer» 
cantile  system,  as  they  call  it,  (or  a  series  of  laws  which  have  been 
enacted  in  this  country,  for  promoting  the  prosperity  of  commerce,) 
f»s  in  the  highest  degree  impolitic ;  though,  under  that  very  system^ 


62  ON  REMOVING  OBSTACLES. 

the  commerce  of  Great  Britian,  has  risen  to  a  height  altogether' 
unexampled  in  history.  But  as  our  legislature  have  wisely  deemed 
it  expedient,  to  protect  both  our  manufactures  and  commerce,  which, 
under  such  a  system,  have  so  eminently  flourished,  no  good  renson 
can  be  assigned,  why,  in  a  like  manner,  and  on  the  same  prinples, 
agriculture  ought  not  to  be  encouraged. 

It  is  certainly  better  to  let  agriculture  alone,  than  to  establish 
injudicous  regulations  respecting  it.  But  if  a  government  will  make 
such  inquiries,  as  may  enable  it  to  judge  of  what  can  be  done  with 
safety  and  advantage  5  and  will  promote  agricultural  industry,  not 
only  by  removing  every  obstacle  to  improvement,  but  by  granting 
positive  encouragement ;  agriculture  will  prosper  with  a  rapidity, 
and  will  be  carried  on  to  an  extent,  which  is  hardly  to  be  credited; 
and  in  a  much  superior  degree,  than  by  the  "  let  alone  system," 
under  the  torpor  of  which,  ages  might  pass  away,  without  accom- 
plishing, what  might  be  effected  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  under  at 
judicious  system  of  encouraging  regulations* 

The  principal  encouragements,  which  a  wise  and  liberal  govern- 
ment, will  naturally  be  anxious  to  bestow,  for  the  purpose  of  advan- 
cing the  agricultural  prosperity  of  a  country,  may  be  classed  under 
the  following  heads  :  1.  Removing  obstacles  to  improvement ;  2. 
Promoting  the  collection  and  diffusion  of  useful  information;  3. 
Giving  a  preference  to  domestic  productions  in  the  home  market ;. 
4.  Encouraging  the  exportation  of  any  surplus  produce  that  may 
remain  on  hand,  after  the  demands  at  home  are  supplied ;  5.  Exten- 
ding, by  every  prudent  means,  the  cultivation  of  waste  lands,  in 
order  that  the  productive  territory  of  the  country  may  be  constantly 
on  the  increase ;  6.  Granting  public  aid  to  substantial  improvements, 
such  as  roads,  bridges,  canals,  &c.  on  which  the  agricultural  and 
general  prosperity  of  a  country  so  essentially  depend;  and,  7- 
Countenancing  the  establishment  of  corporations,  to  furnish  the 
means  of  carrying  on  such  improvements,  as  are  beyond  the  power 
of  individual  wealth  or  enterprise. 


Sect.  I.— On  removing  obstacles  to  Improvement. 


There  is  no  duty  more  incumbent  on  the  government  of  a  country, 
or  from  which  more  advantage  might  be  derived,  than  that  of  ascer- 
taining those  obstacles  to  improvement,  which  are  occasioned  by 
the  defectiveness  of  the  laws.  In  England,  property  held  in 
common,  cannot  be  divided,  without  the  unanimous  consent  of  those 
having  an  interest  in  it;  and  even  the  Crown,  corporate  bodies,  and 
the  guardians  of  minors,  cannot  consent,  unless  authorized  by  a 
special  act  of  the  legislature.  Nothing  can  be  more  impolitic,  than 
retaining  such  impediments  to  improvement.  Such  legal  disabilities 
to  consent  to  enclosure,  ought  to  be  removed  by  a  general  law,  and 
a  division  authorized,  when  agreed  to  by  a  majority  in  value  of  the 
parties  interested,  by  whom  commissioners  for  that  purpose  might 


ON  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE.  63 

•foe  appointed.  Various  attempts  have  been  made,  to  procure  the 
sanction  of  Parliament  to  such  regulations,  but  hitherto  unsuccess- 
fully, owing  to  the  influence  of  those,  who  feel  an  interest  in  preser- 
ving the  present  system,  and  its  abuses. 

Sect.  II. — On  promoting  the   Collection  and  Diffusion  of  useful 
Knowledge. 

It  is  a  saying  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  Bacon,  that  "  know- 
ledge is  power.71  Of  all  the  various  sorts  of  power,  enumerated  by 
that  great  philosopher,  this  seems  by  far  the  most  important.  What 
gives  one  man  any  real  superiority  over  another,  but  the  knowledge 
he  possesses!  What  enables  some  individuals,  to  produce  abundant 
harvests, — to  carry  on  a  prosperous  commerce, — to  establish  suc- 
cessful manufactures, — to  excel  in  mechanism,  or  any  other  useful 
art,  but  the  acquisition,  and  judicious  application  of  that  knowledge, 
in  which  others  are  deficient  ? 

That  the  power  and  prosperity  of  a  country,  depend  on  the 
diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  can  hardly  be  questioned ;  and  there 
is  probably,  no  art,  in  which  a  variety  of  knowledge,  is  of  more 
essential  importance,  than  in  that  of  agriculture.  The  extent  of 
information  necessary  to  bring  it  to  any  thing  like  perfection,  is  far 
greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  To  preserve  the  fertility  of  the 
soil ; — to  free  it  from  supeifluous  moisture  ;-^to  cultivate  it  to  the 
greatest  advantage  ; — to  raise  its  productions  at  the  least  expense; — 
to  procure  the  best  instruments  of  husbandry ; — to  select  the  stock 
likely  to  be  the  most  profitable ; — to  feed  them  in  the  most  judicious 
manner,  and  to  bring  them  to  the  most  advantageous  markets ; — to 
secure  the  harvest,  even  in  the  most  unpropitious  seasons; — to 
separate  the  grain  from  the  straw  with  economy  and  success ; — and 
to  perform  all  the  other  operations  of  agriculture  in  the  most  judicious 
modes,  require  a  greater  extent,  and  variety  of  knowledge,  than 
might,  at  first  view,  be  judged  requisite. 

But  though  a  general  knowledge  of  agriculture,  may  be  diffused 
over  a  great  country,  it  is  found  by  experience,  that  it  cannot  be 
materially  improved,  unless  by  comparing  the  various  practices 
which  subsist,  in  different  parts  of  the  same  kingdom.  One  district 
has  been  led  to  pay  a  peculiar  and  successful  attention,  to  one  branch 
of  hunsbandry,  or  by  a  fortunate  accident,  some  important  discovery 
has  been  made  in  it,  while  other  districts  excel  in  other  particulars  of 
equal  importance.  Mutual  benefit  is  derived  from  the  communication 
of  such  local  practices.  Of  this,  the  improved  modes  of  draining 
by  Elkington — the  warping  of  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Humber; — 
the  drilling  of  turnips  and  potatoes  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
island ; — and  the  more  general  use  of  the  threshing-mill,  and  various 
Other  articles  of  agricultural  machinery,  may  be  cited  as  examples. 

The  advantages  that  may  be  derived,  from  the  result  of  those 
Inquiries,  which  have  been  carried  on  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
in  so  far  as  regards  the  culture  of  arable  land,  may  thus  be  briefly 
stated,     The  means  have  been  explained,  by  which,  in  fertile  districts, 


64  ON  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

and  in  propitious  seasons,  the  farmer  may,  on  an  average,  confidently 
expect  to  reap,  from  32  to  40  bushels  of  wheat ;  from  42  to  50 
bushels  of  barley  ;  from  52  to  64  bushels  of  oats;  and  from  "J8  to 
32  bushels  of  beans,  Winchester  measure,  per  statute  acre.  As  to 
green  crops,  30  tons  of  turnips,  three  tons  of  clover,  and  from 
eight  to  ten  tons  of  potatoes,  per  statute  acre,  may  be  confidently 
relied  on.  In  favourable  seasons  the  crops  are  still  more  abundant "; 
but  even  these  average  ones,  spread  over  a  large  proportion  of  the 
united  kingdom,  would  produce  more  solid  wealth,  than  foreign 
commerce  could  ever  furnish. 

The  various  means  by  which  useful  information  could  best  be 
collected  and  diffused,  are,  1.  Forming  institutions  for  tkat  pur- 
pose;— 2.  The  establishment  of  experimental  farms; — 3.  The 
institution  of  agricultural  professorships; — and,  4.  The  improve- 
ment of  veterinary  knowledge. 

1.  Institutions  for  collecting  and  diffusing  Agricultural  Infor- 
mation.— The  establishment  of  a  Board  of  Agriculture  in  Great 
Britain,  scanty  and  limited  as  its  means  have  been,  has  produced  the 
happiest  effects ;  and  will  propably  in  future  be  considered,  as  an  era 
in  the  history  of  the  art.  Notwithstanding  the  limited  powers  of 
that  institution,  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  country,  are  already 
made  acquainted  with  each  other's  useful  practices ;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  beneficial  inventions,  which,  from  the  insulated  state  of 
farmers,  might  for  centuries  have  been  confined  to  the  place  of  their 
origin,  have  been  at  once  rendered  generally  accessible.  The  publi- 
cation of  the  County  Reports  in  particular,  has  proved  of  peculiar 
importance,  from  the  discussions  which  they  have  ocasioned; — the 
spirit  of  emulation  which  they  have  excited  ; — the  knowledge  which 
they  have  been  the  means  of  circulating; — the  truths  which  they 
have  established ; — and  the  errors  which  they  have  contributed  to 
overturn.  Animated  by  the  example  of  that  Board,  a  much  greater 
number  of  agricultural  societies  have  been  constituted,  than  ever 
before  existed  in  any  other  country,  there  being  hardly  an  extensive 
district  in  the  united  kingdom,  in  which  one,  and  sometimes  more 
of  such  associations,  have  not  been  established.  A  zeal  for  the  im- 
provement of  husbandry,  has  been  thus  cherished  and  kept  up  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  friendly  and  familiar  conversation,  useful  observa- 
tions are  made,  new  facts  are  stated,  and  practical  knowledge, 
derived  from  experience,  is  generally  diffused.  Much  good  has 
already  been  done  by  these  societies ;  but  still  more  might  be  effected 
by  them,  where  the  Board  of  A  griculture,  placed  on  such  an  efficient 
footing,  that  it  might  act  as  a  common  centre,  to  all  these  numerous 
associations,  and  were  for  that  purpose  invested,  with  the  privilege 
of  correspondence  postage  free.  It  would  thus  be  enabled,  better 
than  it  is  at  present,  to  perform  those  public  services,  which  were  in 
the  contemplation  of  those,  by  whose  exertions  the  Board  was 
originally  established. 

2.  Experimental  Farms. — The  art  of  agriculture,  can  never  be 
brought  to  its  highest  degree  of  perfection,  or  established  on  rational 
and  unerring  principles,  unless  by  means  of  experiments,  accurately 
fried,  and  properly  persevered  in.     The  ardent  inquirer,  has  too  long 


ON  PROMOTING  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE.  65 

been  obliged,  to  rely,  on  vague  opinions,  and  assertions  which  have 
nit  been  warranted  by  sufficient  authority ;  it  is  full  time  therefore, 
by  the  establishment  of  experimental  farms,  under  the  sanction,  and 
at  the  expense  of  government ;  or  by  enabling  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture to  grant  adequate  premiums  to  deserving  persons,  for  new 
discoveries,  to  bring  the  art  to  as  great  perfection  as  possible,  by 
ascertaining  the  principles  on  which  it  ought  to  be  conducted. 

It  is  alleged,  that  there  are  many  distinguished  characters,  who 
carry  on  experiments  for  their  own  information  and  amusement,  by 
means  of  which,  every  important  fact,  will  in  process  of  time  be 
ascertained  ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  their  example  is  of  very 
great  advantage  to  those,  who  have  the  means  of  examining  the 
progress  that  is  made.  Their  farms,  however,  are,  more  properly 
speaking,  pattern  farms,  for  the  advantage  of  the  farmers  in  their 
immediate  neighborhood,  than  experimental  ones,  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word;  and  they  are  too  often,  rather  the  partial  records  of 
successful  experiments,  than  the  faithful  journals  of  success  and  of 
disappointment.  In  order  to  render  experimental  farms  generally 
useful,  they  ought  to  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  public ;  the 
account  of  each  experiment  ought  to  be  regularly  published,  and 
every  new  practice,  likely  to  improve  the  cultivation  of  any  conside- 
rable part  of  the  kingdom,  ought  to  be  examined  with  the  utmost 
precision,  every  trial  repeated  for  confirmation,  and,  if  possible,  made 
by  different  persons,  in  different  places,  and  on  different  soils. 

It  cannot  be  expected,  that  persons  of  high  rank,  whose  attention 
is  necessarily  directed  to  other  objects,  should  renounce  their  ordinary 
pursuits,  and  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  the  conducting  of 
agricultural  experiments :  but  if  one  or  more  experimental  farms 
were  established,  under  a  proper  system,  it  would  ere  long  be  disco- 
vered, what  practices  ought  to  be  avoided,  as  well  as  what  ought  to 
be  pursued.  It  is  important,  that  the  one  should  be  made  known 
as  well  as  the  other;  yet  errors  in  husbandry,  are  seldom  communi- 
cated to  the  public,  .or  known  beyond  the  sphere  of  a  confined 
neighborhood,  because  a  farmer  is  in  general  ashamed  of  acknow- 
ledging his  want  of  success.  Unfortunately  also,  when  his  experi- 
ments answer,  they  are  sometimes  concealed,  least  others  should 
avail  themselves  of  the  discovery.  The  object  of  an  experimental 
farm,  however,  should  be,  to  ascertain  facts  and  to  publish  them; 
and  as  much  credit  would  be  acquired,  by  an  intelligent  conductor  of 
an  experimental  farm,  for  his  exertions  in  detecting  errors,  as  in 
establishing  facts  likely  to  be  useful. 

It  would  surely  be  a  highly  beneficial  measure,  for  a  country, 
possessing  such  an  immense  revenue,  to  lay  out  any  moderate  sum 
that  may  be  necessary,  were  it  only  5000/.  per  aunnum,  for  ten  or 
twenty  years,  to  ascertain  points  of  such  essential  importance,  and 
which  might  be  the  means  of  making,  very  great  additions,  to  the 
national  produce,  wealth  and  revenue. 

3.  Agricultural  Professorships. — It  is  not  many  years  ago, 
since,  at  the  expense  of  a  private  individual,  (the  late  Sir  William 
Pulteney,)  a  professorship  was  established  at  Edinburgh,  for  reading 
lectures  on  the  art  of  agriculture.     The  utility  of  such  an  institution 

9 


*66  ON  DOMESTIC  PRODUCTIONS, 

is  so  evident,  that  it  ought  to  be  extended  to  all  the  other  universities. 
The  attention  of  young  men,  by  such  establishments,  would  be 
directed  early  to  this  most  useful  of  all  the  branches  of  knowledge, 
which  has  now  become,  the  general  subject  of  conversation,  wherever 
they  go.  If  they  inherit  landed  property,  agriculture  is  the  topic  to 
which  their  view's  should  be  particularly  directed ;  and  as  there  is 
Scarcely  any  professsion,  which  will  preclude  them  from  spending 
•some  part  of  their  time  in  the  country ;  and  if,  after  having  accumu- 
lated a  fortune,  they  become  proprietors  of  land,  they  having  early 
acquired  Such  knowledge,  it  would  be  a  source  of  much  gratification, 
and  perhaps  of  advantage.  For  such  establishments,  no  new  grant 
would  be  necessary,  or  required  from  Parliament,  but  merely  an  act, 
/Suppressing  those  professorships,  which  are  at  present  sinecures,  or 
of  little  real  utility,  and  establishing  in  their  room,  those  of 
agriculture. 

4.  Improvement  of  Veterinary  Knowledge.- -Some  encourage- 
ment has  been  given,  by  an  annual  grant,  to  the  acquisition  and 
diffusion  of  veterinary  knowledge;  a  deficiency  in  which,  had  proved 
so  fatal  to  the  public  interest.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  for  every 
pound  of  public  money  that  has  been  in  this  way  laid  out,  a  thousand 
lias  been  saved  in  our  national  expenditure,  in  the  article  of  horses 
alone,  employed  in  the  cavalry  and  artillery.  It  would  be  desirable, 
indeed,  that  schools  for  veterinary  knowledge,  should  be  established 
in  all  the  principal  towns  in  the  kingdom;  and  that  the  preservation 
of  every  species  of  our  valuable  stock  of  domestic  animals,  should 
no  longer  be  left  to  ignorance  or  quackery,  but  that  the  practice  to  be 
adopted  in  the  management  of  their  disorders,  should  be  grounded 
on  scientific  principles. 


Sect.  IV»— To  give  a  Preference  to  Domestic  Agricultural  Pro- 
ductions in  the  Home  Market. 


This  is  peculiarly  necessary,  both  to  preserve  the  cotmtry  from 
famine,  and  to  render  it  independent  of  other  nations  for  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  To  permit  the  industry  of  any  foreign  nation,  to  enter 
into  competition  with  our  own  domestic  industry,  or  productions,  is 
Hot  allowed  in  the  manufactures  of  linen  or  cotton,  or  many  other 
articles,  and  ought  still  less  to  be  suffered  in  that  of  corn. 

If  two  nations,  similarly  circumstanced  in  regard  to  soil,  climate, 
labor,  and  circulation,  Were  to  give  each  other  reciprocal  liberty  of 
trading,  the  system,  or  the  whole,  might  not  be  materially  injurious  to 
either;  but  to  place  in  competition  the  industry  of  one  country, 
which  has  a  great  national  debt,  and  heavy  taxes,  and  where  the 
price  of  labour  must  consequently  be  high,  with  that  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  other  countries,  which,  with  better  climates  and  more 
fertile  soils,  are  not  subject  to  the  same  burdens,  would  be  highly 
inexpedient.  Besides,  no  country  that  has  sufficient  extent  of  surface, 
and  can  by  any  exertion  produce  food  for  itself,  would  act  wiselyf 
X®  allow  itself  to  be  dependent  on  others  for  subsistence- 


ON  EXPORTING  PRODUCE.  6$ 

The  equitable  principle,  therefore,  is,  to  impose  a  protecting  duty 
on  all  foreign  agricultural  productions,  until  their  price  be  at  least  as 
high  as  that  at  which  they  can  be  raised  in  Britain,  in  seasons  of 
moderate  fertility,  and  gradually  to  diminish  that  duty  as  prices  rise, 
but  still  giving  a  decided  preference,  to  the  produce  of  the  agriculture 
of  the  united  kingdoms. 

The  exportation  and  importation  of  grain,  and  other  agricultural 
productions,  either  duty  free,  or  at  low  rates,  in  justness  and  equity, 
«an  only  take  place  between  nations,  where  the  value  of  money  is 
the  same,  where  they  are  subject  to  the  same  weight  of  taxation,  are 
similarly  situated  in  regard  to  soil  and  climate,  and  live  in  amity  witb 
each  other. 


Sect.    V. — To    Encourage    the    Exportation    of  any    Surplus* 
Produce, 

It  is  likewise  highly  expedient,  to  promote  the  exportation  of 
domestic  produce,  if  there  be  any  redundancy,  after  supplying  the 
demand  at  home.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  permit  the  exportation  ;  but 
it  may  be  necessary,  for  the  encouragement  of  domestic  cultivation, 
and  in  order  that  the  articles  grown  at  home,  may  be  enabled  to  meet 
the  productions  of  other  countries,  in  foreign  markets,  on  equal 
terms,  to  give  what  is  called  a  bounty  on  exportation.  Nothing, 
however,  can  be  more  erroneous,  than  to  consider  that  encouragement 
a  bounty,  when  it  is  in  fact  a  drawback,  under  another  name.  The 
farmers  at  home,  are  subjected  to  a  variety  of  taxes,  which  are  not 
imposed  on  their  foreign  competitors.  To  enable  them  to  meet  on 
equal  terms,  they  are  entitled  to  receive  an  allowance,  on  every 
quarter  of  grain  exported,  equal  to  what  they  had  actually  paid  on 
its  account  to  the  public,  under  various  denominations.  It  is  but 
just,  that  the  government  should  repay  the  taxes  it  had  received,  on 
what  is  thus  exported,  to  enable  the  farmers,  under  its  protection,  to 
enter  into  a  fair  competition  with  foreign  cultivation ;  more  espe* 
eially  if  at  the  rates  at  which  importation  is  allowed,  are  so  fixed  for 
the  benefit  of  the  manufacturers,  that  the  corn  growers  can,  at  no 
period,  obtain  great  profits,  the  increased  price  being,  in  general, 
only  a  bare  compensation  for  deficiency  in  produce. 


Sect.  VI. — To  promote  the  Improvement  of  Waste  or  Unproductive 
Lands, 

It  is  of  peculiar  importance  to  a  country,  increasing  in  population, 
to  be  constantly  adding  to  its  productive  territory.  There  are 
different  ways  by  which  that  object  may  be  promoted;  1.  By  facili- 
tating the  division,  draining,  embankment,  and  improvement  of 
commons,  meadows,  or  other  intermixed  lands  ;  at  least  in  all  cases 
where  two-thirds,  or  three-fourths  of  the  parties  concerned,  are  in 
favour  of  any  such  measure;  and  this  benefit  might  be  made  attaina- 
ble, by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  authorising  an  application  to  the 


68  ON  SUBSTANTIAL  IMPROVEMENTS. 

Quarter  Sessions  in  England,  or  Sheriffs  in  Scotland,  to  order  an 
inspection,  and  a  report  of  the  expense,  &c.  to  be  made  and  after 
hearing  parties,  to  decide  on  the  propriety  of  the  application,  if 
then  approved  of,  the  direction  and  execution  of  the  improvement, 
should  be  referred  to  commissioners;  2.  By  exempting  from  the  pay- 
ment rf  tithes  and  poor-rates,  for  a  term  of  years,  according  to  the 
expense  of  improvement,  waste  lands  brought  into  cultivation ;  and, 
3.  By  fixing  the  price  at  which  foreign  corn  is  permitted  to  be  im- 
ported, at  such  a  sum,  as  will  enable  a  British  farmer,  to  defray  the 
expense  of  reclaiming  waste,  or  improving  uncultivated  land.  For 
unless  this  be  done,  it  is  impossible,  that  the  produce  of  our  barren 
so/7.9,  cultivated  at  a  great  expense,  can  stand  a  competition,  with  the 
produce  of  the  fertile  fields  of  other  countries,  where  the  expense  of 
cultivation  must,  comparatively  speaking,  be  inconsiderable. 


Sect.  VII. — To  encourage  Permanent  and  Substantial  Improve- 
ments. 

The  wealth  and  agricultural  prosperity  of  a  country,  materially 
depend,  on  such  great  and  substantial  improvements  being  promoted, 
as,  1.  Roads  and  bridges;  2.  Canals;  3.  Railways;  4.  Harbours; 
and,  5.  Embankments ;  and,  where  the  aid  of  government  cannot 
be  given  to  such  undertakings,  the  establishment  of  corporations,  un- 
der the  sanction  of  public  authority,  might  be  found  an  advantageous 
mode  of  carrying  such  improvements  into  effect. 

1.  Roads  and  Bridges. — As  the  first  means  of  introducing  im- 
provements into  a  country,  roads  and  bridges  are  essential;  and 
where  the  population  is  thin,  and  the  country  is  poor,  there  is  no 
possibility  of  having  such  communications  made,  without  public  as- 
sistance. Two  plans  for  that  purpose  have  been  adopted  in  making 
roads.  By  the  one,  the  military  have  been  employed  in  such  public 
works  ;  by  the  other,  under  the  authority  of  Commissioners  appoint- 
ed for  that  special  purpose,  the  public  has  agreed,  in  the  more  remote 
parts  of  the  country,  to  advance  one-half  of  the  expense  of  making 
roads  and  bridges,  where  the  proprietors  come  forward  with  the  other. 
The  communications  which  have  been  opened,  in  consequence  of 
this  encouragement,  are  numerous,  kand  the  public  will  soon  be  amply 
indemnified,  for  any  sum  it  has  thus  expended,  by  the  increased,  re- 
venue it  will  derive  from  districts,  which  have  hitherto  been  unpro- 
ductive. 

In  times  of  peace  also,  the  military  cannot  be  better  employed, 
than  in  carrying  on  public  works  of  so  useful  a  description,  as  roads, 
canals,  &c.  Unless  when  engaged  in  war,  soldiers  are  the  better  for 
beiug  thus  actively  employed  :  it  strengthens  their  bodies,  and  occu- 
pies their  minds.  The  remains  of  those  roads,  which  were  construct- 
ed by  the  Roman  armies,  fully  prove,  what  that  intelligent  nation 
considered  to  be  the  best  means  of  preparing  soldiers,  in  time  of  peace, 
for  the  hardships,  and  achievements  of  war. 

2.  anals. — TV  advantages  of  canals  to  agriculture,  need  not  be 
dwelt  upon.     They  facilitate  the  means  of  conveying  the  bulky  pror 


ON  SUBSTANTIAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  69 

duclions  of  the  soil  to  market,  and  also  by  bringing  at  a  moderate 
expense,  not  only  coal,  but  lime,  and  other  manures,  to  the  farmer. 
Under  a  proper  system  also,  the  surplus  water  might  be  usefully 
employed,  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  On  all  these  accounts, 
canals  ought  to  be  encouraged  by  the  government  of  the  country. 
It  is  not  desirable,  except  in  very  particular  cases,  that  they  should 
be  executed  at  the  public  expense;  but  it  would  greatly  promote 
such  useful  undertakings,  if  government  were  to  lend  a  certain  sum 
to  the  proprietors  of  such  canals,  at  a  moderate  interest,  to  enable 
them  to  complete  any  undertaking  of  that  sort  This  was  done  for 
the  Forth  and  Clyde  navigation;  and  the  company  has  since  repaid 
the  loan.  The  same  plan  might  be  successfully  adopted  in  other 
instances;  and  the  principle  is  at  last  sanctioned  by  parliament,  in 
a  recent  act,  the  effects  of  which,  under  judicious  management,  can 
hardly  fail  to  prove  highly  beneficial. 

3.  Railways. — This  new  mode  of  conveyance,  is  capable  of  being 
rendered  as  extensively  useful  as  canals,  and  is  well  entitled  to  the 
encouragement  of  government,  by  loans  of  money,  at  a  moderate 
interest,  to  carry  them  on  The  government  of  this  country,  can 
always  borrow  money  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  private  individuals,  from 
the  speculation  that  attends  public  loans;  and  the  easiness  with 
which  the  monied  interest  can  re-invest  their  savings  in  the  funds,  in. 
preference  to  any  other  security.  Railways  would  be  particularly 
convenient,  where  canals  are  impracticable,  and  where  either  may  be 
undertaken,  the  former,  being  less  expensive,  will  often  be  preferred. 
They  ought  to  be  promoted,  because  the  more  that  communications 
can  be  opened  between  one  part  of  the  kingdom  and  another,  the 
more  does  a  country  prosper,  and  the  more  are  the  people  in  it  com- 
bined into  one  great  community. 

4.  Harbours. — Though  harbours  are  more  essential  in  a  commer- 
cial than  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  yet  they  are  stitf  of  mate- 
rial consequence  to  the  husbandry  of  a  country,  by  facilitating  the 
exportation  of  bulky  articles  of  produce,  and  the  importation  of  coal 
and  lime,  those  essential  articles  to  the  farmer.  The  same  plan  of 
public  assistance,  either  in  whole,  or  in  part,  will  be  found  as  useful 
in  regard  to  harbours,  as  to  railways  or  canals,  and  has  answered  in 
practice.  Certain  sums  of  money,  (arising  from  the  forfeited  estates 
in  Scotland,)  which  were  at  the  disposal  of  parliament,  were  granted 
for  improving  the  harbours  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Scotland. 
The  sums  given  were  trifling ;  in  general  from  two  to  four  thousand 
pounds  each;  and  excepting  in  one  instance,  where  the  sum  was 
granted  to  encourage  a  fishing  establishment,  erected  by  a  public 
spirited  company,  (the  Society  for  improving  the  Sea-coasts  of  the 
kingdom,)  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  or  neighborhood,  where  that 
assistance  was  bestowed,  were  bound  to  furnish  one  half  of  the  total 
sum  to  be  expended.  The  effect  of  this  system  has  been  most 
beneficial.  It  is  not  so  much  indeed  the  sum  actually  given,  as  the 
spirit  which  it  excites,  that  is  of  service ;  and  when  once  such  a 
spirit  is  roused,  it  is  not  confined  to  one  object,  but  extends  itself  to 
others.  Little  causes  thus  produce  great  effects;  and  a  moderate 
public  expenditure  of  a  few  thousand  pounds,  may  lay  the  foundation 


70  ON  SUBSTANTIAL  IMPROVEMENTS. 

of  an  extensive  fishery,  or  a  great  emporium  of  commerce,  and 
promote,  at  the  same  time,  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  an  exten- 
sive district. 

5.  Embankments. — When  the  difficulty  and  hazard  of  embanking 
a  considerable  tract  of  country,  either  against  the  overflowings  of  a 
lake  or  river,  or  the  inroads  of  the  sea,  are  considered,  there  is  no 
undertaking,  that  seems  better  entitled  to  the  encouragement  of  a 
wise  government.  Extensive  tracts  of  fertile  territory,  may  thus  be 
acquired,  greatly  to  the  public  advantage.  The  soil  thus  obtained, 
is  generally  of  a  nature  peculiarly  productive,  and  well  adapted  for 
agricultural  purposes.  To  carry  on  such  undertakings,  however,  at 
the  public  expense,  might  be  hazardous;  but  when  their  utility,  and 
ultimate  profit,  are  sufficiently  proved,  by  the  evidence  of  intelligent 
engineers,  to  the  conviction  of  parliament,  it  may  be  advisable  for 
the  legislature,  in  times  of  peace,  to  authorize  the  advancing  one 
third,  or  any  other  proportion  of  the  estimated  expense,  at  a  mode- 
rate interest. 

Where  extensive  drainages  are  necessary,  the  same  encouragement 
ought  to  be  given. 

6.  To  establish  Corporations  for  carrying  on  beneficial  improve- 
ments.— Many  of  these  improvements  might  be  successfully  promot- 
ed, by  the  establishment  of  corporations,  for  carrying  on  particular 
objects,  which  cannot  be  effected  by  individual  wealth.  This  is  fre- 
quently done  in  the  case  of  canals,  and  ought  to  be  extended  to  other 
means  of  improvement.  The  formation  of  such  associations,  is  at 
present  the  more  expedient,  that  there  is  likely  to  be  a  large  capital, 
requiring  profitable  employment,  much  of  which  will  be  sent  abroad, 
unless  it  can  be  laid  out  at  home  with  advantage.  Much  good  there- 
fore might  be  effected,  by  erecting  public  companies,  for  specific  ob- 
jects of  improvement.  Each  company  should  be  permitted  to  raise 
a  capital  adequate  to  the  object  in  view.  It  should  execute  no  work 
itself,  (planting  perhaps  excepted,)  but  should  merely  be  permitted, 
to  lend  money,  at  any  rate  of  interest,  not  exceeding  five  or  six  per 
cent,  to  all  such  landed  proprietors,  as  had  any  great  improvement, 
to  execute ;  the  sum  advanced  never  to  be  demandable,  but  the  stock 
of  the  company  to  be  transferable,  like  other  public  securities,  which 
would  answer  equally  well  the  purposes  of  those  stockholders,  who 
might  wish  to  receive  again  the  sums  they  had  subscribed.  Estates 
under  the  fetters  of  strict  entail,  might  thus  be  improved,  which  other- 
wise would  be  neglected.  The  surplus  capital  of  the  country,  would 
thus  be  employed  at  home  and  embodied,  it  may  be  said,  with  our 
own  territory ;  and  the  whole  country  would  be  improved  in  a  man* 
ner,  and  to  an  extent,  that  cannot  otherwise  be  attainable. 


It  was  by  promoting  such  measures  as  these,  that  the  most  celebrat- 
ed statesman  of  modern  times,  justly  called  Frederick  the  Great, 
(more  from  his  attention  to  internal  improvement,  than  to  foreign 
conquests,)  raised  his  dominions  notwithstanding  the  disadvantages 
©f  situation,  soil,  and  climate,  to  that  height  of  prosperity  and  power, 


ON  SUBSTANTIAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  71 

to  which  they  attained  during  his  reign.  His  practice  was,  to  lay 
out  about  300,000/.  sterling  per  annum,  in  the  encouragement  of 
agricultural  improvements,  which  he  considered,  "  as  manure  spread 
upon  the  ground,"  to  secure  an  abundant  harvest ;  and  in  fact,  in- 
stead of  being  impoverished  by  such  liberal  grants,  he  thereby  in- 
creased his  revenues  so  much,  that  he  was  enabled  to  leave  a  treasure 
behind  him,  amounting  to  above  12,000,000Z.  sterling.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  country,  owing  partly  to  unfavourable  seasons,  partly  to 
its  increased  population,  but  principally  to  its  agricultural  interest 
not  being  sufficiently  encouraged,  has  been  under  the  fatal  necessity, 
of  transmitting  to  other  nations,  above  57  millions  sterling,  in  the 
space  of  twenty  years,  and  no  less  a  sum  than  12  millions  in  one 
year,  to  procure  food  for  its  inhabitants ! 

The  celebrated  Watson,  Bishop  of  Llandaff,  has  most  ably  ex- 
plained, the  advantages  to  be  derived  by  agriculture,  from  such  pub- 
lic encouragement,  in  the  following  words :  "  The  agricultural  im- 
provements which  have  hitherto  taken  place  amongst  us,  have  been, 
by  the  expenditure  of  private  wealth ;  but  the  country  cannot  be 
brought  to  that  perfection  of  cultivation,  of  which  it  is  capable, 
unless  individual  efforts,  are  aided  and  accelerated,  by  public  wisdom 
and  munificence.  I  boast  not  of  any  particular  patriotism,  but  I 
would  willingly  pay  my  share  of  twenty  or  thirty  millions  of  public 
money,  to  be  appropriated  by  the  legislature,  to  the  agricultural  in> 
provement  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  appears  to  me,  to 
be  an  object,  of  far  nearer  concern  to  our  independence,  as  a  nation, 
than  any  extension  of  commerce,  or  any  acquisition  of  distant  terri- 
tory ever  can  be.  If  the  time  had  fully  come,  when  an  unproductive 
acre  of  land  could  not  be  found  in  either  of  these,  our  fortunate 
islands,  we  shall  then  have  food  within  ourselves,  for  the  annual 
sustenance,  of  at  least  thirty  millions  of  people;  and  with  a  popula- 
tion of  thirty  millions,  what  power  in  Europe,  or  what  combination 
of  powers,  will  dare  to  attempt  our  subjugation. 


May  these  considerations  be  listened  to  by  those,  who  take  ay 
active  part,  in  conducting  the  government  of  this  great  empire;  and 
may  some  effectual  steps  be  taken,  by  encourageing  cultivation  and 
improvement,  in  the  manner  above  suggested,  or  by  such  other 
means  as  may  be  judged  most  useful,  not  only  to  prevent,  what  is 
justly  accounted  the  greatest  of  all  possible  calamities,  scarcity  or 
famine,  but  also  to  promote,  the  future  permanent  welfare  and  hap- 
piness of  the  people. 

JOHN  SINCLAIR. 


Ormly  Lodge,  Ham  Common^  Surrey 
20th  June,  18X7- 


72  ON  SOIL. 


[FROM  SIR  JOHN  SINCAIR'S  CODE  Of  AGRICULTURE.] 


Preliminary  points  to  be  considered,  before  a  Farmer 

can  undertake  with  prudence   the  occupation 

of  any  extent  oj  land. 


Sect.  II. — Soil. 

The  surface,  or  outward  coating  of  land,  usually  consists  of  various 
earthy  matters,  with  a  mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances  in 
a  stafe  of  partial  decomposition,  together  with  certain  saline  and 
mineral  ingredients.  Where  favourably  combined,  it  is  admirably 
calculated  to  afford  support  to  plants,  to  enable  them  to  fix  their  roots, 
and  gradually  to  derive  nourishment  by  their  tubes,  from  the  soluble 
and  dissolved  substances  contained  in  the  soil,  (as  this  mixed  mass 
is  called,)  or  passing  in  it.  The  strata  on  which  it  is  incumbent,  are 
known  under  the  general  name  of  subsoil. 

The  importance  of  the  soil  has  been  described  in  various  ways. 
By  some  it  has  been  called  the  mother  or  nurse  of  vegetation.  By 
others  it  is  represented  as  discharging  functions  to  plants,  similar  to 
those  which  the  stomach  does  to  animals,  in  preparing  their  food, 
and  fitting  it  for  absorption  by  their  roots.  It  furnishes  the  plant 
also  with  heat;  for  a  well  cultivated,  and  highly  manured  soil,  is  much 
warmer  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  farmer,  it  is  said, 
ought  to  study  the  relative  value  of  the  different  soils,  as  the  merchant 
does  the  worth  of  the  several  commodities  he  deals  in.  In  short,  a 
favourable  soil  and  climate,  are  declared  to  be,  the  first  riches  of  a 
country. 

The  importance  of  a  farmer's  paying  particular  attention  to  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  soil  he  cultivates,  need  not  therefore  be 
dwelt  upon.  By  availing  himself  of  the  qualities  it  possesses,  or  by 
removing  its  defects,  his  profits  are  much  increased.  He  must,  in 
general,  regulate  his  measures  accordingly,  in  regard  to  the  rent  he  is 
to  offer,  the  capital  he  is  to  lay  out,  the  stock  he  is  to  keep,  the  crops 
he  is  to  raise,  and  the  improvements  he  is  to  execute.  Indeed  such  is 
the  importance  of  the  soil,  and  the  necessity  of  adapting  this  system 
to  its  peculiar  properties,  that  no  general  system  of  cultivation  can  be 
laid  down,  unless,  all  the  circumstances  regarding  the  nature,  and  sit- 
uation of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  be  known;  and  it  rarely  happens  if  a 
farmer  has  been  long  accustomed  to  one  species  of  soil,  that  he  is 
equally  succesful  in  the  management  of  another. 


ON  SOIL.  73 

Soils  may  be  considered  under  the  following  general  heads : — Sand; 
—Gravel ; — Clay ) — Chalk ; — Peat ; — Alluvial ;  and, — Loam,  or  that 
species  of  artificial  soil,  into  which  the  others  are  generally  brought, 
by  the  effects  of  manure,  in  the  course  of  long  cultivation.  After 
describing  each  sort,  it  is  proposed  to  state,  the  modes  of  improving 
their  texture;  the  crops  for  which  they  are  respectively  calculated; 
and  the  districts  where  they  are  cultivated  with  the  greatest  success. 

1.  Sand. — A  soil  that  consists  entirely  of  small  grains  of  a  hard 
nature,  (silex,)  which  neither  cohere  together,  nor  are  softened  by 
water,  nor  soluble  in  acids,  though  it  ought  not  to  be  totally  abandon- 
ed, yet  is  too  poor  to  be  cultivated  with  advantage.  It  would  indeed 
be  hazardous  in  the  extreme,  from  the  risk  of  having  the  covering  mould 
blown  off  the  new-sown  grain,  in  the  spring,  by  high  winds.  Sandy 
soils,  however,  generally  have  a  considerable  mixture  of  other  sub- 
stances, by  which  their  quality  is  greatly  ameliorated. 

The  best  mode  of  improving  the  texture  of  such  a  soil,  deficient 
in  retentive  or  adhesive  properties,  is,  by  a  mixture  of  clay,  marl, 
sea-ooze,  sea-shells,  peat,  or  vegetable  earth;  and  it  frequently  hap- 
pens, that  under  the  sand  itself,  or  in  its  immediate  neighborhood, 
the  very  materials  may  be  found,  so  essential  for  its  improvement. 

In  some  parts  of  Norfolk,  they  have  availed  themselves  of  these 
auxiliaries,  for  improving  a  sandy  soil,  in  an  eminent  degree :  by 
means  of  which  they  have  created  a  new  soil ;  and  by  the  continua- 
tion of  judicious  management,  they  have  given  a  degree  of  fame  to 
the  husbandry  of  that  district,  far  surpassing  that  of  others  naturally 
more  fertile. 

The  improvement  of  a  sandy  soil,  is  generally  accomplished  by 
fossil  manures ;  but  vegetable  substances  are  likewise  effectual.  A 
top  dressing  of  peat  has  been  tried  for  that  purpose,  and  the  experi- 
ment was  attended,  not  only  with  immediate  good  effects,  but  with 
permanent  benefit. 

Sandy  soils  are  valuable,  being  so  easily  cultivated,  and  so  well 
calculated  for  sheep,  that  most  profitable  species  of  stock  Where 
the  land  is  hilly,  rabbits  are  frequently  kept,  for  the  rabbit  can  easily 
throw  down  the  light  soil  from  the  hole  he  excavates,  where  there  is 
a  declivity.  Hence  it  has  been  remarked  by  some  that  loose-soiled 
hills,  will  pay  better  in  rabbit-warrens,  than  under  any  other  mode  of 
occupation.  Others  consider  planting  to  be  a  more  profitable  appro- 
priation of  such  hills. 

Rich  sandy  soils,  however,  such  as  those  of  Frodsham,  in  Ches- 
hire, under  a  regular  course  of  husbandry,  are  invaluable.  They 
are  cultivated  at  a  moderate  expense ;  and  at  all  seasons,  have  a  dry 
soundness,  accompanied  by  moisture,  which  secures  excellent  crops 
even  in  the  driest  summers. 

The  crops  raised  on  sandy  soils  are  numerous,  as  the  common 
turnip, — potatoes, — carrots, — barley, — rye, — buckwheat, — pease, — 
clover, — sainfoin,  and  other  grasses.  This  species  of  soil,  in  general, 
has  not  strength  enough  for  the  production  of  the  Swedish  turnip, 
beans,  wheat,  flax,  or  hemp,  in  any  degree  of  perfection,  without 
much  improvement  in  its  texture,  the  addition  of  great  quantities  of 
enriching  manure,  and  the  most  skilful  management. 

10 


74  ON  SOIL. 

When  under  a  course  of  cultivation,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to 
sandy  soils,  either  to  fold  sheep  upon  them,  or  to  consume  the  ci  ps 
of  turnips  upon  the  ground  where  they  are  raised.  These  practices 
greatly  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  such  soils,  not  only  by 
the  dung  and  urine  thus  deposited,  but  by  the  consolidation  and 
firmness  of  texture  which  the  treading  of  the  sheep  occasions. 

The  carrot  husbandry,  in  the  •'  Sandlings"  of  Suffolk,  as  they  are 
called,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  objects  to  be  met  with  in  British 
agriculture.  After  defraying  all  expenses,  the  clear  profit,  by 
feeding  horses  in  the  stable,  is  considerable,  (5/.  9s.  6d*  per  statute 
acre.)  Some  prefer  to  fatten  bullocks  with  them ;  while  others,  who 
bave  the  advantage  of  water  carriage,  think  it  most  beneficial  to 
send  their  carrots  to  the  London  market.  Carrots  are  likewise  an 
admirable  preparation  for  other  crops. 

In  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  it  is  found  that  poor  sandy  soils,  not 
worth  5s.  per  acre  for  any  other  purpose,  under  sainfoin,  will  pro- 
duce, after  the  first  year,  about  two  tons  per  acre,  of  excellent  hay, 
for  several , years,  with  an  after-grass,  extremely  valuable  for  weaning 
and  keeping  lambs.  How  much  more  beneficial  than  any  crops  of 
grain  that  such  soils  usually  yield ! 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Dunbar  in  Scotland,  there  are  some  farms 
originally  of  a  light  sandy  soil,  which  have  been  rendered  uncom- 
monly productive  ;  but  they  are  situated  on  the  coast,  and  accom- 
modated with  immense  quantities  of  sea-weed.  For  many  years 
they  were  cultivated  in  the  following  course  of  severe  cropping. 
1.  Turnips;  2.  Drilled  wheat ;  3.  Clover;  4.  Drilled  wheat.  By 
Cultivation,  the  soil  has  now  become  a  species  of  ligh  loam. 

The  management  of  sandy  land,  according  to  the  system  adopted 
by  the  celebrated  Duckett  of  Petersham  and  Esher,  in  Surrey,  has 
been  strongly  recommended  by  an  eminent  author.  It  was  founded 
On  three  principles :  1.  Ploughing  very  deep  :  a  due  degree  of  mois- 
ture was  thus  preserved  in  his  light  land,  by  means  of  which  his 
crops  were  flourishing  in  seasons  of  drought,  which  destroyed  those 
of  his  neighbours; — 2.  Ploughing  seldom,  but  effectually,  by  a 
trench  plough,  or  what  he  called  a  skim-coulter  plough,  with  which 
he  buried  the  weeds  that  grew  on  the  surface ;  he  has  been  known 
to  put  in  seven  crops  with  only  four  ploughings;  and,  3.  Occa- 
sionally raising  a  crop  of  turnips  the  same  season,  after  a  crop  of 
wheat  or  of  pulse* 

In  the  Pays  de  Waes  in  Flanders,  sand  is  likewise  cultivated  to 
great  perfection.  The  soil  of  that  district,  which  was  originally  a 
barren  white  sand,  by  a  slow  but  sure  process,  has  at  last  been  con- 
verted into  a  most  fertile  loam.  The  surface,  to  the  depth  of  three 
or  four  inches,  was  at  first  alone  cultivated,  but  the  soil  was  gra- 
dually deepened,  as  it  became  progressively  enriched ;  and  now  the 
ground,  at  the  commencement  of  every  rotation,  is  trenched  by  a 
shovel,  (the  soil  being  very  loose, )  to  the  depth  of  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches,  the  exhausted  surface  is  buried,  and  the  fresh  soil 
brought  up,  enriched  by  the  manure  washed  down  to  it,  during  the 
Seven  preceding  years.  It  is  then  subjected  to  the  following  course 
of  crops:  1.  Potatoes;  2.  Wheat  manured,  sown  in  November,  and 


ON  SOIL.  7§ 

carrots  in  February,  for  a  second  crop  in  the  same  year;  3.  Flax, 
manured,  and  sown  with  clover  seed,  for  the  ne  crop ;  4.  Clover; 
5.  Rye  or  wheat,  with  carrots  for  a  second  cro  ^:  6.  Oats  after  the 
carrots ;  and,  f:  Buck-wheat,  at  the  end  of  which  period  the  ground 
is  again  trenched. 

The  double  crops  raised  in  the  sandy  soils  of  Flanders,  in  the 
course  of  the  same  year,  are  attended  with  much  advantage.  The 
Flemish  farmers  thus  obtain  a  greater  quantity  of  manure,  than  they 
could  produce  under  any  other  system,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
extract  so  much  produce  from  soils,  originally  sterile,  and  which 
would  soon  revert  to  their  former  state  of  barrenness,  without  the 
greatest  industry,  and  the  most  unwaried  attention. 

It  is  a  rule,  in  regard  to  sandy  soils,  never  to  pick  off  any  small 
stones  that  may  be  found  in  them,  as  they  contribute  to  prevent 
evaporation,  and  to  preserve  moisture.  It  is  another  rule,  frequently 
to  renovate  the  strength  of  such  soils,  by  laying  them  down  with 
grass-seeds,  and  pasturing  them  for  a  few  years,  as  they  are  so 
apt  to  be  exhausted  by  aration,  if  corn  crops  are  too  frequently 
repealed. 

It  may  be  added  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  fertility  of  sandy,  or 
siliceous  soils,  is  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls, 
combined  with  the  frequency  of  its  recurrence.  As  a  proof  of  this, 
in  the  rainy  climate  of  Turin,  the  most  prolific  soil  has  from  77  to 
80  per  cent,  of  siliceous  earth,  and  from  nine  to  fourteen  of  calca- 
reous; whereas  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  where  there  is  much 
less  rain,  the  silex  is  only  in  the  proportion  of  from  26  to  50  per 
cent,  in  the  most  fertile  parts. 

2.  Gravel. — Gravelly  soils  differ  materially  from  sandy,  both  in 
in  their  texture  and  modes  of  management.  They  are  frequently 
composed  of  small  soft  stenes,  sometimes  of  flinty  ones ;  but  they 
often  contain  granite,  limestone,  and  other  rocky  substances,  par- 
tially, but  not  very  minutely  decomposed.  Gravel,  being  more 
porous  than  even  sand,  is  generally  a  poor,  and  what  is  called,  a 
hungry  soil,  more  especially  when  the  parts  of  which  it  consists, 
are  hard  in  substance  and  rounded  in  form.  Gravelly  soils  are 
easily  exhausted,  for  the  animal  and  vegetable  matters  they  contain, 
not  being  attracted  by  the  earthy  constituent  parts  of  the  soil, 
which  are  seldom  sufficiently  abundant  for  that  purpose,  are  more 
liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  carried 
off  from  them  by  water. 

Gravelly  soils  are  improved  by  draining,  where  they  are  troubled 
with  springs; — by  deep  ploughing; — by  mixing  them  with  coats  of 
clay,  chalk,  marl  peat,  or  other  earth  ;  by  frequent  returns  of  grass 
crops ; — by  repeated  applications  of  manure ; — and  by  irrigation,  if 
the  water  be  full  of  sediment,  and  judiciously  applied  on  a  proper 
form  of  surface. 

Sometimes  the  ground  is  so  covered  with  flints  and  stones,  that 
hardly  any  mould  is  to  be  seen.  Land  of  this  description  is  very 
troublesome  to  work,  and  is  injurious  to  the  implements  of  husbandry 
employed  in  the  cultivation ;  but  with  proper  management,  it  can  be 
rendered  highly  productive. 


76  ON  SOIL. 

The  stone-brash  or  corn-brash  soils,  (as  they  are  provincially 
called,)  of  Gloucestershire,  and  the  midland  counties  of  England, 
may  be  included  under  the  general  head  of  gravelly  soils,  being  so 
much  mixed  with  small  stones.  They  have  frequently,  however, 
more  sand,  or  clay,  or  calcareous  loam,  in  their  composition,  than 
gravelly  soils  usually  possess,  and  on  that  account,  are  treated  of  by 
some  authors  as  a  distinct  species  of  soil. 

Gravelly  soils,  from  their  parting  so  readily  with  moisture,  are 
apt  to  burn,  as  it  is  called,  in  dry  seasons;  but  in  wet  ones,  they 
usually  produce  abundant  crops  of  barley,  rye,  tares,  pease,  oats, 
and  even  wheat :  and  even  a  thin  stratum  of  gravel,  if  mixed  with 
shells,  and  other  marine  productions,  possesses  many  advantages  for 
cultivation,  in  a  wet  climate. 

A  gravelly  soil,  free  from  stagnant  water,  gives  such  an  additional 
warmth  to  the  climate,  that  vegetation  is  nearly  a  fortnight  earlier, 
than  where  other  soils  predominate.  About  Dartford  and  Blackheath 
in  Kent,  such  soils  produce  early  green  pease,  winter  tares,  rye,  au- 
tumnal pease,  and  occasionally  wheat,  in  great  perfection.  When 
barley  and  oats  are  cultivated,  they  should  be  sown  very  early,  that 
they  may  have  full  possession  of  the  ground  before  the  dry  season  sets 
in.  Gravelly  soils,  in  a  wet  climate,  answer  well  for  potatoes ;  and 
indeed,  in  Cornwall,  in  a  sheltered  situation,  with  a  command  of  sea- 
sand,  and  of  sea-weed,  they  raise  two  crops  of  potatoes  in  the  same 
year. 

Poor  gravelly  soils,  full  of  springs,  and  those  sulphurous,  are  very 
unfriendly  to  vegetation;  and  are  better  calculated  for  wood  than  for 
arable  culture. 

3.  Clay. — A  clay  soil  is  distinguished  above  every  other  for 
tenacity.  It  feels  smooth,  and  somewhat  unctuous.  If  cultivated 
in  a  wet  state,  it  sticks  to  the  plough  like  mortar,  and  does  not  soon* 
become  dry.  It  is  often,  indeed,  of  so  adhesive  a  nature,  that  it  will 
hold  water  like  a  dish.  In  a  dry  summer,  the  plough  turns  it  up  in 
great  clods,  scarcely  to  be  broken  or  separated  by  the  heaviest  roller. 
It  requires,  therefore,  much  labor  to  put  it  in  a  state  fit  for  producing 
either  corn  or  grass :  and  though  it  will  yield  great  crops,  yet  being 
cultivated  at  a  heavy  expense,  unless  when  occupied  by  a  judicious 
attentive  farmer,  it  is  seldom  that  much  profit  is  obtained.  The  very 
superior  management  of  clay  soils,  as  practised  in  the  Lothians,  is 
fortunately  an  exception  to  this  general  rule. 

The  value  of  a  clayey  soil,  depends  materially  on  its  having  an 
open  subsoil,  which  renders  it  more  tractable  and  productive.  Its 
texture  is  improved  by  a  suitable  mixture  of  common  sand,  sea-sand 
and  above  all,  of  limestone  gravel,  where  it  can  be  obtained  Peat- 
moss also,  that  has  for  some  time  been  dug  up,  and  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  may  be  used  with  advantage.  It  is  like- 
wise necessary  to  enrich  it  with  putrid  and  calcareous  manures  in 
the  course  of  its  cultivation. 

Under  proper  culture,  clay  soils  are  well  calculated  for  growing 
crops  of  beans,  wheat,  oats,  clover,  and  winter  tares ;  but  not  for 
barley,  unless  immediately  after  a  fallow;  nor  for  turnips,  or 
potatoes,  unless  under  very  peculiar  management.     Clays  become 


ON  SOIL.  77 

good  meadow,  though  from  their  aptitude  to  be  poached,  they  are,  in 
general,  unfit  to  be  fed  by  heavy  cattle  in  wet  weather ;  but  they  do 
well  for  hay,  or  soiling.  The  after-grass  may  be  used  to  feed  neat 
cattle  till  October,  and  sheep  till  March.  A  stiff  clay,  however, 
with  a  strong  marl  undei  it,  is  preferred  in  Cheshire  and  Derbyshire 
for  the  dairy. 

Ploughing  previous  to  winter  setting  in,  is  of  great  use  to  clays, 
by  exposing  the  surface  to  the  frost,  which  mellows  and  reduces  it 
in  a  manner  infinitely  superior  to  what  could  be  accomplished  by  all 
the  operations  of  man.  In  this  state,  the  soil  remains  till  spring 
seed-time,  when  it  is  either  ploughed  with  a  shallow  furrow  or 
scarified  and  sown. 

In  respect  to  fallowing  strong  clay,  (a  subject  to  be  afterwards 
more  fully  discussed,)  though  some  eminent  farmers  think  it  unne- 
cessary, provided  particular  attention  be  paid  to  the  bean  crop, 
sowing  early,  horse-hoeing  regularly,  and  weeding  completely ;  yet 
there  certainly  are  many  clay  soils,  more  especially  in  Scotland,  so 
tenacious  and  obdurate,  so  adhesive  to  every  thing  that  comes  in 
contact  with  them  when  wet,  and  assuming,  when  dry,  such  a  stony 
hardness,  that  they  are  but  ill  calculated,  in  that  stubborn  state,  for 
the  purposes  of  vegetation.  In  that  case,  a  summer  fallow  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  every  six  or  eight  years  ;  both  to  prevent  such 
soils  contracting  a  most  injurious  sourness  and  adhesion  from  wet 
ploughing,  and  in  order  that,  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  winds, 
during  the  summer  months,  they  may  be  so  thoroughly  pulverised, 
as  to  be  placed  in  a  state  fit  for  bearing  abundant  crops  of  grain  and 
grass.  There  are  certain  soils,  and  situations,  indeed,  where  summer- 
fallowing  cannot  be  advantageously  relinquished  for  any  other 
process  of  tillage  whatsoever. 

4.  Peat. — This  substance  is  unquestionably  of  vegetable  origin. 
The  difference  between  it  and  vegetable  mould  is  this,  that  mould  is 
derived  from  finer  substances,  as  the  leaves  of  the  trees, — the  remains 
of  the  arable  cultivation, — and  the  roots  as  well  as  the  leaves  and 
stalks  of  the  finer  grasses,  which  contain  a  large  proportion  of  earthy 
matters  ;  whereas  peat  is  chiefly  composed  of  various  sorts  of 
aquatics;  which,  instead  of  rotting  on,  or  near  the  surface,  are 
generally  immersed  in  stagnant  water,  and  only  partially  decomposed. 
In  valleys,  peat-moss  has  often  a  considerable  proportion  of  vegeta- 
ble earth  washed  from  the  higher  grounds. 

An  author  who  has  successfully  explained  the  nature  of  peat,  has 
adopted  the  following  classification  :  1.  Fibrous;  2.  Compact ;  and, 
3.  Bituminous  peat;  4.  Peat  mixed  with  calcareous  matter;  5. 
With  sand  or  clay;  6.  With  pyrites;  and,  7.  With  marine  salt. 
Each  of  these,  he  contends,  differs  essentially  in  its  composition  and 
chemical  qualities;  and,  above  all,  each  species  requires  different 
treatment,  in  order  to  convert  it,  either  into  a  soil,  or  into  manure. 

In  converting  peat  into  earth,  it  is  a  rule  to  plough  and  dig  it  in  au- 
tumn, that  it  may  be  effectually  exposed  to  the  winter's  frost.  If  this 
work  be  not  commenced  at  a  proper  season  of  the  year,  and  if  the 
peat  be  once  hardened  by  the  summer's  sun,  it  is  hardly  possibly  af- 
terwards to  decompose  it. 


78  ON    SOIL. 

The  crops  best  calculated  for  a  reclaimed  peat-bog  or  moss,  are> 
oats,  rye,  beans,  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  cole-seed,  white  and  red 
clover,  and  timothy.  Wheat  and  barley  have  succeeded  on  such 
lands  after  they  have  been  supplied  with  abundance  of  calcareous 
earth ;  and  the  florin  grass,  (agrostis  stolonifera,)  seems  likewise  to 
be  well  adapted  to  that  description  of  soil,  when  moderately  surface- 
drained. 

The  improvement  of  peat-bogs,  and  of  all  wet  lands,  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  draining  ;  stagnant  water  being  injurious  to  all  the  nutritive 
classes  of  plants.  Soft  black  peat  earth,  when  drained,  is  often  ren- 
dered productive,  by  the  mere  application  of  sand  and  clay  as  a  top 
dressing.  When  peat  contains  ferruginous  salts,  calcareous  matter  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  fit  it  for  cultivation.  When  mosses  or  bogs 
abound  with  the  branches,  or  the  roots  of  trees,  or  when  the  surface 
entirely  consists  of  living  vegetables,  they  must  either  be  carried  off, 
or  burnt.  In  the  last  case,  their  ashes  furnish  ingredients  calculated 
to  improve  the  texture  of  the  peat.  For  this  soil,  soap-ashes  are 
found  an  excellent  manure. 

In  Leicestershire,  and  various  other  counties,  they  have  great 
tracts  of  meadow  land,  which,  in  many  instances,  are  the  sites  of 
lakes  filled  up,  the  soil  of  which  is  composed  of  peat  and  sediment ; 
the  former  originally  formed  by  aquatic  vegetation,  and  the  latter 
brought  down  by  rains  and  streams  from  the  upland.  This  forms  a 
soil  admirably  calculated  for  grass. 

The  fens  in  Cambridgeshire,  Lincolnshire,  and  several  other  dis- 
tricts in  England,  likewise  consist  of  peat  and  sediment  They  are 
pared  and  burnt  for  cole-seed,  to  be  fed  off  by  sheep,  who  by  their 
manure  enrich  the  soil.  After  two  crops  of  grain,  they  are  sown  with 
grass  seeds,  (two  bushels  of  rye-grass,  and  eight  or  ten  pounds  of 
white  clover,)  and  remain  in  grass  for  five,  six,  or  seven  years ;  the 
longer  the  better.  In  the  fens,  beans  and  turnips  have  been  cultivat- 
ed, but  have  not  been  found  to  answer ;  nor  can  fen  land  be  fallowed, 
for  it  does  not  bear  much  stirring.  Potatoes,  and  above  all,  carrots, 
may  be  tried  as  an  intervening  crop,  and  with  a  prospect  of  success. 

The  great  object  however  is,  to  adopt  the  most  proper  manage- 
ment of  fen  or  peaty  land  for  hay  crops ;  and  here  it  is  proper  to 
mention  a  modern  discovery  of  great  moment.  It  is  ascertained,  that 
by  suffering  the  second  crop  of  grass,  that  might  often,  with  difficulty, 
be  converted  into  hay  or  rot  upon  the  ground,  an  immense  produce  of 
hay  is  ensured  for  the  succeeding  year,  and  that  fen  land  may  thus 
become  a  perpetual  hay  meadow.  This  important  fact  is  corrobo- 
rated by  some  experiments  which  have  been  tried  near  Oudenarde  in 
Flanders,  where  the  same  effect  has  been  produced,  by  leaving  the 
second  crop  on  the  ground  every  second  or  third  year  ;  the  grass  pro- 
duced the  succeeding  year  being  of  extraordinary  length. 

5.  Chalk. — Chalky  soils  principally  consist  of  calcareous  matter, 
mixed  with  various  other  substances,  in  greater  or  lesser  proportions. 
Where  .clayey  or  earthy  substances  are  to  be  found  in  such  soils  in 
considerable  quantities,  the  composition  is  heavy  and  productive  $ 
where  sand  or  gravel  abounds,  it  is  light,  and  often  unfertile. 


on  soil.  79 

The  crops  chiefly  cultivated  on  chalky  soils,  are  pease,  turnips, 
Parley,  clover,  and  wheat ;  and  however  much  the  soil  is  exhaused, 
it  will  produce  sainfoin. 

The  means  of  ameliorating  the  texture  of  chalky  soils,  are,  either 
by  the  application  of  clayey  and  sandy  loams,  pure  clay  or  marl ;  or 
where  the  staple  is  deficient,  by  using  great  quantities  of  peat,  or  of 
water-fed  earth.  The  chalk  stratum  sometimes  lies  Upon  a  thick 
vein  of  black  tenacious  marl,  of  a  rich  quality,  which  ought  to  be  dug 
up,  and  mixed  with  the  chalk. 

The  ashes  of  a  sort  of  peat  produced  in  some  parts  of  Berkshire 
and  Bedfordshire,  of  a  red  colour,  and  which  abound  with  iron,  are 
found  to  be  highly  beneficial  to  chalky  soils,  particularTy  when  sown 
with  trefoil,  and  other  grasses :  on  such  soils,  these  ashes  are  of  use, 
not  only  for  crops  of  barley,  but  likewise  even  of  oats. 

Chalky  soils  are,  in  general,  fitter  for  tillage,  than  for  grazing ;  for, 
without  the  plough,  the  peculiar  advantages  derived  from  this  soil  by 
sainfoin,  (one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses  we  owe  to  the  bounty  of 
Providence,)  could  not  be  obtained.  The  plough,  however,  ought 
not  to  extend  to  those  fine  chalky  downs,  (called  ewe  leases  in  Dor- 
setshire,) which,  by  a  very  attentive  management,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  number  of  years,  have  been  brought  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
fertility,  as  grazing  land,  and  are  so  useful  to  sheep  in  the  winter  sea- 
son. 

A  chalky  soil  that  has  once  been  in  tillage,  is  so  retentive  of  water 
in  winter,  and  previous  to  the  sun's  rays  in  summer,  that  it  is  the 
work  of  an  age  to  make  it  a  good  pasture  of  natural  grasses,  more 
especially  when  the  chalk  lies  near  the  surface.  Hence,  in  the  west- 
ern counties  of  England,  several  thousands  of  acres  of  this  soil, 
though  not  ploughed  for  thirty  years,  have  scarcely  any  grass  of  tole- 
rable quality  upon  them,  and  are  literally  worth  nothing.  Such  soils 
ought  to  be  cultivated  in  the  following  manner,  as  a  preparation  for 
sainfoin :  1st  year,  Pare  and  burn  for  turnips,  to  be  eaten  on  the  land 
by  sheep,  with  the  aid  of  some  fodder ;  2d,  Barley  to  be  sown  very 
early  with  clover  seed  ;  3d,  Clover,  eaten  off  by  sheep ;  4th,  Wheat  5 
5th,  Turnips,  with  manure;  and.  6th,  Barley,  with  sainfoin.  The 
corn  crops  must  be  carefully  weeded,  and,  in  particular,  cleared  of 
charlock.  Under  this  system,  which  has  been  successfully  practised 
by  a  celebrated  Kentish  fanner,  (Mr.  Boys  of  Betshanger,)  the  pro- 
duce has  been  great,  and  the  ground  has  been  laid  down  in  the  high- 
est order  with  sainfoin,  or  any  other  gmss  calculated  for  this  species 
of  soil.  By  adopting  this  system,  many  thousands  of  acres  might  be 
improved,  now  lying  in  a  miserable  state. 

6.  Alluvial  Soils. — These  are  of  two  sorts  ;  one  derived  from  the 
sediment  of  fresh,  and  the  other  of  salt  water. 

Along  the  sides  of  rivers,  and  other  considerable  streams,  water- 
formed  soils  are  to  be  met  with,  consisting  of  the  decomposed  matter 
of  decayed  vegetables,  with  the  sediment  of  streams.  They  are 
usually  deep  and  fertile,  and  not  apt  to  be  injured  by  rain,  as  they 
usually  lie  on  a  bed  of  open  gravel.  They  are  commonly  employed 
as  meadows,  from  the  hazard  of  the  crops  being  injured,  or  carried 
off  by  floods,  if  cultivated. 


OU  ON  SOIL. 

Those  fine  alluvial  soils,  occasioned  by  the  operations  of  salt-water, 
(called  salt  marshes  in  England,  and  carses  in  Scotland,)  are  com- 
posed of  the  finest  parts  of  natural  clay,  washed  off  by  running 
water,  and  deposited  on  flat  ground,  on  the  shores  of  estuaries,  where 
they  are  formed  by  the  reflux  of  the  tide,  and  enriched  with  marine 
productions.  They  generally  have  a  rich,  level  surface,  and  being 
deep  in  the  staple,  they  are  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  the  most 
valuable  crops.  Hence  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  clover,  are  all  of 
them  productive  on  this  species  of  soil;  which  is  likewise  peculiarly 
well  calculated  for  beans,  as  the  tap-root  pushes  vigorously  through 
it,  and  finds  its  nourishment  at  a  great  depth.  Lime,  in  considerable 
quantities,  is'found  to  be  the  most  effectual  means  of  promoting  the 
improvement  of  this  species  of  soil. 

7.  Loam. — Where  a  soil  is  moderately  cohesive,  less  tenacious 
than  clay,  and  more  so  than  sand,  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  loam. 
From  its  frequency,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that,  in  some  cases, 
it  might  be  c  died  an  original  soil.  At  the  same  time  a  constant 
course  of  tillage  for  ages,  the  application  of  fertilizing  manures,  and 
where  necessary,  mixing  any  particular  substance  in  which  the  soil 
is  deficient,  (as  clay  with  sand,  or  sand  where  clay  predominates,) 
will  necessarily  convert  a  soil  thus  treated  into  a  loam. 

Loams  are  the  most  desirable  of  all  soils  to  occupy.  They  are 
friable ;  can  in  general  be  cultivated  at  almost  any  season  of  the 
year  • — are  ploughed  with  greater  facility  and  less  strength  than  clay  ; 
— bear  better  the  vicissitudes  of  the  season ;  and  seldom  require  any 
change  in  the  rotation  adopted.  Above  all,  they  are  peculiarly  well 
adapted  for  the  convertible  husbandry  ;  for  they  can  be  altered,  not 
only  without  injury,  but  generally  with  benefit,  from  grass  to  tillage, 
and  from  tillage  to  grass.  They  should  not  however,  be  kept  in 
tillage  too  long,  nor  while  they  are  in  cultivation,  should  too  white 
crops  be  taken  in  succession. 

Loams  are  of  four  sorts;  1.  Sandy;  2.  Gravelly;  3.  Clayey; 
and,  4.  Peaty. 

1.  A  sandy  soil,  and  a  sandy  loam,  are  easily  distingnished.  A 
sandy  soil  is  always  loose  and  crumbling,  and  never  gets  into  a  clod, 
even  in  the  driest  weather;  whereas  a  sandy  loam,  owing  to  the  clay 
that  is  mixed  with  it,  retains  a  degree  of  adhesion  or  cloddiness,  after 
wetness  or  drought,  and  will  not  suddenly  crumble  down,  without 
the  application  of  machinery  for  that  purpose. 

A  mellow,  rich,  crumbling  sandy  loam,  adhesive  enough  to  fear  no 
drought,  and  friable  enough  to  strain  off  superfluous  moisture,  if 
incumbent  on  a  sound  subsoil,  is  the  most  profitable  of  all  soils, 
being  managed  with  much  less  expense  than  any  other  soil,  and 
raising  with  advantage,  every  species  of  crop  that  the  climate  will 
admit  of. 

2.  Gravelly  loams,  when  warm,  sound,  and  dry,  or  free  from 
springs,  are  useful  soils,  more  especially  in  wet  seasons  and  climates. 

3.  A  clayey  or  stiff  loam,  is  nearly  allied  to  brick  earth.  Though, 
the  soil  might  have  originally  been  poor  cold,  and  hungry,  yet  if 
it  be  well  drained,  according  to  the  Essex  system,  and  highly 
manured,  it  will  yield  great  crops.  It  is  found  well  adapted  for  the 
dairy  in  Cheshire. 


ON  SOIL.  81 

4.  Peat,  in  some  of  its  varieties,  may  likewise  be  converted  by 
culture,  into  a  species  of  soft  black  loam,  and,  in  that  state,  it 
becomes  highly  fertile  and  productive. 

Loams  will  produce  hemp  and  flax,  in  the  greatest  perfection  and 
abundance,  besides  the  other  crops  usually  cultivated  in  this  country  : 
and  in  rich  loams,  where  the  subsoil  is  both  dry  and  open,  lucerne 
might  be  more  generally  grown  than  it  is,  in  preference  to  other 
grasses. 

Before  the  subject  of  soils  is  dismissed,  there  are  some  miscella- 
neous particulars  which  merit  attention;  as,  1.  The  means  of 
ascertaining  their  composition  ;  2.  The  nature  of  mould  so  essential 
for  their  fertility ;  3.  Their  colour  ;  4.  The  importance  of  cultiva- 
ting good  soils ;  and,  5.  The  general  principles  on  which  their 
improvements  may  be  effected. 

1.  That  the  most  efficient  methods  for  improving  soils  may  be 
adopted,  it  is  necessary  that  their  composition  should  be  known. 
A  distinguished  philosopher  has  suggested  a  plan  tor  that  purpose, 
which  can  easily  be  carried  into  effect,  by  any  person  at  all  conver- 
sant in  chemical  researches.  But  the  generality  of  farmers  have 
not  the  means  of  entering  into  such  researches ;  yet  they  are  able, 
by  observation  and  experience,  to  discover  the  most  important 
deficiencies  of  the  soil  they  cultivate.  This  may  be  effected,  by 
comparing  their  own  soils  with  each  other,  and  with  the  most  fertile 
in  their  immediate  neighborhood.  The  great  object  they  ought  to 
keep  in  view  is,  to  render  a  soil  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining 
such  a  due  quantity  of  moisture,  as  may  be  sufficient  to  nourish  the 
vegetables  that  grow  in  it,  and  to  absorb  or  throw  off,  that  superflu- 
ous wafer  which  would  prove  injurious. 

2.  Mould,  which  contains  a  mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  re- 
mains, particularly  from  putrefaction,  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  all 
fertile  soils.  It  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  the  roots  and  leaves 
of  vegetables  on  grass  land,  and  the  stubble  and  roots  of  grain  crops, 
on  arable.  This  process  on  grass  lands  is  very  slow  ;  for  it  is  calcu- 
lated that  it  proceeds  at  the  rate  of  only  one  inch  in  a  century. 
Considerable  accumulations  of  this  mould,  are  likewise  produced 
from  the  leaves  of  trees,  amassed  for  a  number  of  years,  and  rotted 
on  the  surface.  When,  in  addition  to  vegetable,  there  are  animal 
remains,  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  the  soil  is  distinguished  for  its 
fertility. 

3.  It  is  of  essential  consequence,  when  the  surface  is  bare  and 
exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  that  the  colour  of  the  soil  should  be 
such,  as  to  attract  and  absorb  the  greatest  heat  from  the  sun  and  the 
atmosphere,  more  especially  in  spring. 

Soils  are  of  various  colours ;  the  principal  are  white,  black,  and  red. 

White  stiff  clays  are  heated  with  difficulty,  and  being  universally 
very  moist,  they  retain  their  heat  only  for  a  short  time. 

A  black  soil,  containing  much  vegetable  matter,  is  most  easily 
heated  by  the  sun  and  air.  Its  temperature  has  increased  from  65° 
to  88°  by  exposure  to  sunshine  for  an  hour.  A  chalky  soil,  under 
the  Same  circumstances,  was  heated  only  to  69°.  In  the  shade, 
however,  the  black  mould  lost  its  heat  more  rapidly. 

11 


82  ON  SUBSOIL. 

The  red  colour  in  soils,  is  owing  to  iron  in  various  combinations. 
It  is  favourable  or  adverse  to  fertility,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
combination.  That  which  approaches  nearest  to  the  metallic  state, 
is  considered  by  some  the  most  favourable. 

4.  It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  too  much  can  hardly  be  paid 
for  a  good  soil,  and  that  even  a  low  rent  will  not  make  a  poor  one 
profitable.  The  labour  of  cultivating  a  rich  and  a  poor  soil,  is 
nearly  the  same  ;  while  the  latter  requires  more  manure,  and  conse- 
quently is  more  expensive.  Poor  soils,  at  the  same  time,  may  have 
such  a  command  of  lasting  manures,  or  even  of  temporary  sorts, 
like  seaweed,  as  may  render  them  profitable  to  cultivate. 

5.  There  are  various  modes  of  improving  soils. 

Soils  with  acids,  or  salts  of  iron,  may  be  ameliorated  by  the 
application  of  lime,  or  chalk.  The  sulphate  of  iron  is  thus  con- 
verted into  a  manure. 

If  there  be  an  excess  of  calcareous  matter  in  the  soil,  as  in  chalky 
soils,  it  may  be  improved  by  the  application  of  sand,  or  clay,  or 
earthy  substances. 

Soils  too  abundant  in  sand,  are  benefited  by  the  use  of  clay,  or 
marl,  or  vegetable  matter. 

A  deficiency  of  vegetable  or  animal  matter,  must  be  supplied  by 
manure. 

An  excess  of  vegetable  matter  is  to  be  removed  by  burning,  or  to 
be  remedied  by  the  application  of  earthy  materials.  The  substances 
necessary  for  improving  soils,  are  seldom  far  distant.  Coarse  sand 
is  often  found  immediately  upon  chalk,  and  perhaps  always  under  it, 
while  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  are  commonly  below  clay,  and  clay 
and  marl  generally  below  sand. 

The  labour  and  expense  of  improving  the  texture  or  constitution 
of  the  soil,  it  has  been  justly  observed,  are  amply  repaid  by  the  great 
permanent  advantages  they  produce.  Less  manure  is  afterwards 
required,  the  future  fertility  of  the  soil  is  ensured,  and  capital,  thus, 
expended,  secures  for  ever  the  productiveness,  and  consequently  the 
value  of  the  land. 


Sect.  III. — Subsoil. 

The  value  of  a  soil  depends  much  upon  the  nature  of  the 
subsoil  or  under  stratum.  On  various  accounts  its  properties  merit 
particular  attention.  By  examining  the  subsoil,  information  may  be 
obtained  regarding  the  soil  itself;  for  the  materials  of  the  latter,  are 
often  similar  to  those  which  enter  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
former,  though  the  substances  in  the  soil  are  necessarily  altered,  by 
various  mixtures,  in  the  course  of  cultivation. — The  subsoil  may  be 
of  use  to  the  soil,  by  supplying  its  deficiencies,  and  correcting  its 
defects. — The  hazard  and  expense  of  cultivating  the  surface,  are 
often  considerably  augmented  by  defects  in  the  under  stratum,  but 
which,  in  some  cases,  may  be  remedied. 

.Subsoils are,  1.  Retentive;  or,  2.  Porous. 


ON  SUBSOIL.  83 

1.  Retentive  subsoils  consist  of  clay,  or  marl,  or  of  stone  beds  of 
various  kinds. 

A  retentive,  clayey,  or  tilly  subsoil,  is  highly  injurious.  The  land 
is  soaked  with  water,  is  ploughed  with  difficulty,  and  is  not  in  a 
condition  to  exert  its  powers,  until  the  cold  sluggish  moisture  of  the 
winter  be  exhaled.  By  the  water  being  retained  in  the  upper  soil, 
the  putrefactive  process  is  of  course  interrupted,  and  manures  are 
prevented  from  operating.  The  plants  likewise,  from  the  roots 
being  chilled,  can  make  but  little  progress.  Hence,  when  grain  is 
cultivated,  it  is  always  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  herbage,  when  in 
grass  is  coarse. 

A  clayey  subsoil,  however,  may  sometimes  be  of  material  advan- 
tage to  a  sandy  soil,  by  retaining  moisture  in  such  a  manner,  as  to 
supply  what  is  lost  by  evaporation,  and  the  consumption  of  plants. 

When  soils  are  immediately  situated  upon  a  bed  of  impervious 
rock  or  stone,  they  are  much  sooner  rendered  dry  by  evaporation, 
than  where  the  subsoil  is  clay  or  marl.  A  stony  subsoil,  when  in  a 
position  approaching  to  the  horizontal,  is,  in  general,  prejudicial, 
and  if  the  surface  soil  be  thin,  usually  occasions  bareness  ;  unless  the 
rock  should  be  limestone,  and  then  the  soil  though  thin,  is  distin- 
guished for  its  fertility. 

2-  A  porous  subsoil,  if  not  carried  to  an  extreme,  is  uniformly  of 
great  advantage,  not  only  by  its  admitting  the  fibrous  sorts  of  vege- 
tables to  extend  deeper,  in  search  of  moisture  and  nutriment,  but 
also,  from  its  carrying  off  all  superfluous  moisture,  which  is  less 
perfectly  done  artificially,  by  the  expensive  operation  of  hollow- 
draining. 

Below  clay  and  all  the  variety  of  loams,  an  open  subsoil  is  par- 
ticularly desirable.  It  is  favourable  to  all  the  operations  of  husban- 
dry ;— it  tends  to  correct  the  imperfections  of  too  great  a  degree  of 
absorbent  power  in  the  soil  above; — it  promotes  the  beneficial 
effects  of  manures ; — it  contributes  to  the  preservation  and  growth  of 
the  seeds ; — and  ensures  the  future  prosperity  of  the  plants.  Hence 
it  is,  that  a  thinner  soil,  with  a  favorable  subsoil,  will  produce  better 
crops,  than  a  more  fertile  one,  incumbent  on  wet  clay,  or  cold  and 
non-absorbent  rock. 

Lands  whose  substratum  consists  of  clean  gravel  or  other  siliceous 
earths,  can  bear  but  little  sun,  owing  to  their  not  having  a  capacity  of 
retaining  moisture,  and  their  generally  possessing  but  only  a  shallow 
surface  of  vegetable  mould.  In  England,  this  soil  was  formerly 
called  rye-land,  being  more  generally  cropt  with  that  species  of  grain, 
than  any  other.  Such  soils  should  be  ploughed  deeper  than  they 
usually  are,  and  if  cultivated  for  barley,  it  should  be  sown  early  and 
t kicky  and  the  seed  soaked  for  forty-eight  hours  previously  in  water, 
or  still  better,  in  the  exudation  from  a  dung  heap.  Thus  its 
simultaneous  germination,  and  ripening  at  the  same  time,  will 
he  secured. 


84  CULTIVATING  AND  IMPROVING  WASTES. 


Rules  to  be  observed  regarding  the  Improvement  of  Waste 
Lands. 

In  the  culiivation  of  wastes,  the  following  rules  are  laid  down  by 
the  most  successful  improvers. 

1.  Not  to  put  in  practice  any  scheme  of  improvement,  without 
the  fullest  deliberation,  nor  without  the  command  of  an  adequate 
capital. 

2.  Not  to  begin  on  too  great  a  scale,  nor  until,  by  experience  it 
be  found,  that  the  design  is  suitable  to  the  soil,  situation  and 
climate. 

3.  When  the  intention  is  to  cultivate  peat-moss,  not  to  begin 
cropping,  till  at  least  one  season  after  the  drains  are  completed,  and 
the  soil  thoroughly  reclaimed  from  superfluous  moisture.  In  flow  or 
spongy  mosses,  a  longer  time  is  necessary,  and  it  is  desirable  to 
expose  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  during  the  frosts  of 
winter. 

4.  To  plough  or  delve  peat-moss  in  autumn,  that  it  may  be  effec- 
tually exposed  to  the  winter  frost  and  rains,  and  not  to  the  summer's 
heat,  which  hardans  it,  and  prevents  its  decomposition. 

5.  Whatever  is  done,  to  do  it  effectually  ;  not  to  think  of  laying 
on  four  acres,  the  manure  necessary  for  three ;  nor  the  lime,  chalk, 
earth,  clay,  sand  or  gravel,  upon  two  acres,  that  should  be  employed 
in  covering  only  one. 

6.  To  carry  on  the  improvement  of  waste  lands,  without  en- 
croaching upon  the  dung  necessary  for  the  improved  part  of  a  farm, 
as  dung  ought  never  to  be  brought  from  a  good  soil,  to  lay  upon  a 
bad  one.  Unless  dung  therefore  can  be  procured  from  a  neighbour- 
ing town  or  village,  it  will  be  better  to  leave  the  lands  in  their  natural 
state,  except  in  cases  where  the  soil,  by  being  pared,  burnt,  limed, 
or  marled,  or  covered  with  chalk,  clay,  earth,  &c.  will  pay  the 
expense  of  the  improvement. 

7.  The  last  rule  is,  to  lay  down  land,  improved  from  waste,  more 
especially  in  high  and  bleak  situations,  as  soon  as  possible  into 
grass,  and  to  retain  it  in  that  state  as  long  as  it  is  tolebrably  produc- 
tive. For  though  grain  and  roots  may  be  cultivated  on  waste  lands, 
when  properly  improved,  yet  grass  pastured,  particularly  by  sheep, 
is  principally  to  be  depended  on  for  improving  all  weak  soils,  in 
barren  districts.  In  such  cases,  it  is  from  grass  alone  that  remune- 
ration can  be  looked  for  by  the  improver  of  waste  land.  Even 
though  soils  of  this  description  do  not  produce  grass  in  much  abun- 
dance, or  of  good  quality,  yet  when  in  pasture  they  produce  some- 
thing, and  a  stop  is  put  to  father  expenditure. 


ON  DRAININ©.  85 


Sect.  II. — Advantages  of  Draining. 

The  benefit  of  draining  is  experienced,  1.  In  arable  land  ;  2.  In 
grass;  3.  In  woods  and  plantations ;  4.  In  the  improvements  of 
wastes ;  5.  In  the  climate ;  and,  6.  In  various  miscellaneous 
particulars. 

1.  Arable  Land. — While  land  remains  in  a  wet  state,  the  manure 
laid  upon  it,  is,  comparatively  speaking,  of  little  use; — the  seed 
sown  often  perishes  ; — the  crops  are  sickly,  and  later  of  ripening; — 
and  the  operations  of  harvest  are  attended  with  uncertainty  and 
danger;  whereas,  when  land  is  thoroughly  drained,  it  can  be  plough- 
ed at  any  season  with  advantage, — it  is  easily  managed,  and  kept 
clean  at  a  moderate  expense, — every  exertion  of  good  husbandry  is 
attended  with  success, — it  suffers  less  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
seasons, — the  produce  is  generally  ample, — the  quality  of  the  grain 
is  excellent, — and  the  farmer  will  thrive,  where  his  predecessor, 
cultivated  a  wet  and  undrained  soil,  was  impoverished,  or  perhaps 
totally  ruined. 

2.  Grass  Land. — The  beneficial  effects  of  draining  on  grass  land 
are  also  very  great.  Rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants  soon  disap- 
pear ; — the  finer  grasses  rise  in  abundance ; — the  pastures  maintain 
a  greater  number  of  cattle  and  sheep  ; — the  stock  becomes  superior 
in  size  and  quality,  and  less  subject  to  disease ; — that  destructive 
malady,  the  rot,  so  fatal  to  sheep,  is  prevented ; — and  if  the  land  be 
mown,  the  hay  produced,  is  so  much  improved  in  quality,  as  to  be 
doubly  valuable. 

3.  Woods  and  Plantations. — Draining  is  likewise  an  improve- 
ment of  the  most  essential  consequences  to  plantations,  where  they 
do  not  consist  of  aquatic  trees.  Land  intended  for  planting  forest 
trees,  if  wet,  particularly  requires  draining;  for  the  roots  of  trees, 
penetrating  deeper  than  those  of  any  other  plants,  the  necessity  of 
removing  the  under,  as  well  as  the  surface  water,  is  evident.  Where 
this  has  been  attended  to,  the  plantations  thrive,  and  the  trees  grow 
to  a  considerable  size,  much  faster  than  oan  otherwise  be  expected. 

4.  Improvement  of  Wastes. — The  improvement  of  wet  moors, 
must  be  preceded  by  draining,  stagnant  water  being  injurious  to  all 
the  valuable  classes  of  plants.  Care  in  particular  should  be  taken, 
to  render  the  land  dry,  before  the  application  of  lime,  dung,  or 
compost,  otherwise  the  attempt  will  be  ineffectual.  At  present^ 
commons  lying  waste,  are,  in  respect  of  drainage,  in  a  most  wretched 
state.  The  soil,  in  the  first  instance,  absorbs  as  much  water  as  it 
can  contain,  and  the  surplus  water  remains  on  the  surface,  in  a  stag- 
nant state,  highly  injurious  to  the  healthiness  of  the  neighborhood. 

5.  Melioration  of  Climate. — By  the  removal  of  stagnant  water, 
and  the  prevention  of  noxious  exhalations,  the  climate  is  rendered 
more  healthy  and  genial,  both  to  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Indeed, 
since  the  introduction  of  draining  into  this  country,  agues,  and  other 
similar  distempers,  occasioned  by  the  humidity  of  the  soil,  and  the 
consequent  impurity  of  the  atmosphere,  have  been  prevented,  in  a 


86  ON  DRAINING. 

great  measure,  and  the  general  health  of  the  inhabitants  has  been 
greatly  improved.  1'vfuch  water  is  discharged  into  the  atmosphere, 
by  spouty  land,  through  the  aquatic  plants  and  coarse  herbage  which 
it  carries;  and  it  is  a  curious  and  important  circumstance;  in  an 
experiment  recorded,  that  while  the  air  immediately  above  a  wet 
soil,  was  only  57°  of  Farenheit,  the  dry  part  of  the  same  field,  and 
of  a  similar  soil,  was  about  100°. 

6.  Miscellaneous  Advantages. — The  drainage  of  one  tract  of 
land,  may  likewise  furnish  water  by  which  the  accommodation  of 
another  may  be  promoted  for  various  useful  purposes,  as,  for  irriga- 
tion ; — for  mills,  and  other  machinery ; — for  supplying  houses,  ponds, 
inclosures,  canals,  or  artificial  navigations.  By  peculiar  modes  of 
applying  the  arts  of  draining  also,  the  quantity  of  water  found  in 
mines  and  quarries,  may  be  diminished,  either  by  cutting  ofT  the 
resources  above,  or  by  letting  down  that  which  often  impedes  their 
working,  into  a  porous  stratum  below. 

On  the  whole,  there  is  no  means  by  which  the  value  of  land  can 
be  advanced,  or  from  which,  when  usefully  applied,  so  many  advan- 
tages can  be  derived  at  a  moderate  expense,  as  that  of  draining. 
The  owner  is  benefited  by  an  increase  of  rent;  the  occupier  by  that 
of  produce  ;  and  the  public,  by  being  thus  supplied  with  greater 
quantities  of  the  most  essential  commodities,  and  by  having  a  source 
of  useful  employment  furnished  to  the  laboring  classes  of  community. 
Unfortunately,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  greater  part  of  the 
counties  stand  more  in  need  of  draining  than  of  manuring;  and 
there  are  very  few  districts  where  a  knowledge  of  this  essential 
means  of  improvement,  is  so  general  or  so  perfect,  as  it  ought 
to  be.* 

*  There  is,  probably,  no  agricultural  process,  which  has  been  the  subject  of 
more  injudicious  remark,  among1  the  people  of  this  country,  than  that  of 
draining.  An  undue  importance  has  been  attached  to  it  on  the  one  hand, 
while  no  importance  at  all  has  been  given  to  it  on  the  other.  In  a  country 
like  America,  where  labor  is  scarce  and  dear,  and  lands  are  plenty  and  com- 
paratively cheap,  the  truth  would  seem  to  lie  between  these  extremes.  Labor 
with  us  is  a  given  quantity,  and  very  limited,  too,  in  its  amount.  The  great 
question  among  us  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  how  this  given  quantity  of  labor  can 
be  most  economically  and  profitably  employed.  If  the  amount  of  labor  at  our 
command  will  afford  us  a  greater  return  of  profit,  if  expended  on  our  dry, 
than  it  would  on  our  wet  lands,  then  certainly  every  principle  of  economy 
would  require  us  to  put  it  on  the  former,  rather  than  the  latter.  If  the  return 
would  be  equal,  then,  other  circumstances,  besides  mere  profit,  musf  determine 
us  what  course  to  take.  Now  it  is  an  unquestionable  fact,  that  we  have  not  a 
sufficiency  of  labor  to  cultivate  our  dry  lands  to  the  greatest  advantage;  and 
it  is  another  unquestionable  fact,  that  the  same  expense,  generally  speaking, 
put  upon  our  dry,  or  up-iands,  will  afford  a  greater  return  of  profit,  than  if  put 
upon  our  wet  lands.  If  so,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible,  that  we  ought,  with 
our  present  supply  of  labor,  to  cultivate  our  dry  lands,  to  the  neglect  of  our 
wet,  rather  than  our  wet  lands,  to  the  neglect  of  our  dry,  nor  is  the  conclusion 
less  irresistible,  that  we  cannot  cultivate  oui  wet  lands,  unless  we  do  at  the 
same  time  neglect  our  dry  lands. 

Although  the  question  of  draining  on  an  extensive  scale,  would  thus  appear 
to  be  conclusively  settled,  it  by  no  means  follows,  that  draining  can  in  no  case. 
be  attempted  with  advantage.  It  may  often  happen,  and  actually  does  happen, 
that  the  sitation,  and  other  circumstances  of  a  piece  of  low,  wet  ground,  are 
such  as  would  justify  an  attempt  to  drain  it,  even  on  a  most  rigid  adherence  to 


ON  DRAINING.  87 


2.  On  the  Causes  of  Wetness  in  Land. 

To  proceed  with  any  prospect  of  success  in  the  art  of  draining, 
it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the   causes   which   produce  wetness   in 

the  principles  just  laid  down.  It  may  be  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  town,  where 
the  value  of  land  is  so  great,  that  the  expense  of  draining  would  be  amply 
reimbursed.  It  may  be  situated  near  one's  house,  or  barn,  where  the  compa- 
rative value  of  land  is  much  enhanced  by  that  particular  fact,  and  the  land 
would,  if  reclaimed,  be  of  more  advantage  to  the  proprietor,  than  other  land 
purchased  and  improved  with  the  same  cost.  It  may  be  so  situated  as  to  be 
not  only  useless,  but  a  nuisance,  the  removal  of  which  might  be  necessary  to 
the  due  cultivation  of  adjoining  lands,  or  the  profitable  enjoyment  of  other 
privileges.  But  the  making  of  such  lands  more  productive,  is  not  always  the 
only  motive  which  would  justify  the  draining  of  them.  A  regard  to  health, 
mere  convenience,  and  decent  appearance,  will  sometimes  require,  that  the 
process  be  undertaken.  As  it  respects  the  first,  if  it  do  but  clearly  appear 
that  the  draining  of  such  lands  will  contribute  to  its  preservation,  there  surely 
can  be  no  question  as  to  the  expediency  of  the  measures.  As  it  respects  con- 
venience, of  that  every  one  must  be  his  own  judge,  whether  the  convenience 
will  equal  the  expense  in  a  particular  case,  or  not.  All  that  needs  to  be  here 
said  of  that,  is,  cases  do  often  occur  in  which  draining  is  of  very  great  impor- 
tance in  that  respect.  With  regard  to  decency  of  appearance,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  on  almost  every  farm  of  any  considerable  size,  there  are  found 
detached  pieces  of  wet,  boggy,  pouchy  land,  inconsiderable  perhaps  in  extent, 
but  which  are  an  incumbrance  in  the  way  of  improving  the  adjoining  land, 
and  greatly  disfigure  the  gene>  al  appearance  of  the  farm. — It  may  be  asked 
here,  what  if  the  farm  is  disfigured ;  is  appearance  profit  ?  It  sometimes 
certainly  is,  it  is  always  worth  something  ;  and  though  like  other  things  of  value 
it  may  be  purchased  at  too  dear  a  rate,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  always 
so  acquired.  One  thing  is  clear,  account  for  it  as  we  will,  a  slovenly  farmer 
is  seldom  a  thrifty  one,  and  a  nice,  neat,  and  tidy  farmer  is  seldom  an  un- 
thrifty one. 

Let  it  be  taken,  then,  for  granted,  that  draining,  on  a  limited  scale,  may 
be  attempted  to  advantage  in  this  country  :  the  question  occurs,  what  is 
the  best  mode  of  doing  it? — The  author  of  the  Code  of  Agriculture,  has 
treated  of  two  kinds  of  drains,  the  open  and  the  covered.  It  is  believed, 
that  in  this  country,  where  the  expense  of  making  them  would  be  so  great, 
and  where  land  is  so  plenty,  the  saving  of  ground  by  means  of  covering 
the  drains,  cannot,  in  general  practice,  be  any  object.  Nor  does  it  appear 
that  any  advantage  is  derived  from  such  drains,  on  account  of  their  accom- 
plishing the  main  object  more  effectually.  No  further  remarks,  therefore, 
will  here  be  made  respecting  drains  of  that  description :  but  what  is  said, 
will  be  confined  to  open  drains,  as  it  respects  their  size,  and  the  manner  of 
making  them. 

Our  drains  are  almost  universally  made  both  too  narrow  and  too  shallow. 
By  being  norrow,  frosts,  and  the.  treading  of  cattle,  soon  fill  them  up,  and  the 
expense  of  making  them  is  thus  thrown  away.  This  evil  is  increased  by 
leaving  the  earth,  which  is  trown  out  in  making  them,  on  their  sides.  This 
earth,  by  lying  near  the  margin  of  the  drain,  causes  that  side  on  which  it  is 
placed,  to  fall  in  the  sooner  and  then  follows  it  itself.  In  this  way  all  the 
earth  which  was  taken  out,  is  replaced,  and  the  land  reduced  to  its  original 
state.  If  the  drain  is  small,  a  moderate  quantity  of  earth,  grass,  or  other 
matter  easily  clogs  it,  and  obstructs  the  passage  of  the  water.  Whereas  if  it 
be  large,  exactly  the  reverse  takes  place.  If  the  drain  is  wide,  and  the  eartb 
taken  from  it  is  removed  to  a  distance,  neither  cattle  nor  frost  can  fill  it  up ; 
but  in  spite  of  the  trampling  of  the  one,  and  the  heaving  of  the  other,  a  hollow 
must  still  remain. 

But  drains  ought  to  be  deep,  as  well  as  wide.  Besides  the  increase  of 
rapacity   which  additional  depth   gives  them,  there  are  other  advantages 


o5  ON  DRAINING. 

land,  and  the  different  appearances  which,  according  to  soil  and 
situation,  it  assumes.  The  causes  are,  1.  Surface-water;  2  Soils 
absorbing  and  retaining  a  superabundant  quantity  of  moisture, 
either  from  their  own  texture,  or  the  quality  of  their  subsoils ;  3. 
Land  springs  from  surface-water  ;  4.  Springs  from  subjacent  water; 
and,  5.  Back-water  from  ditches  or  ponds. 

resulting  from  the  same  source.  Not  only  is  the  under  stratum  of  water  if 
there  be  one,  in  that  case  carried  off,  but  more  of  the  surface  water,  even 
where  that  is  the  sole  cause  of  wetness,  is  removed  by  a  deep,  than  by  a 
shallow  drain.  A  drain  both  wide  and  deep,  even  in  a  piece  of  ground  where 
there  is  no  outlet  for  the  water  to  pass  off,  may  oftentimes  leave  the  surface 
dry,  and  that  too,  where  there  is  no  perforation  made  into  a  dry  stratum 
beneath. 


/    \~ 


In  the  first  place  let  a,  a,  represent  the  surface  of  a  wet  tract  of  ground 
which  it  is  proposed  to  drain.  Suppose  that  there  is  an  outlet  for  the  water 
to  pass  through  down  some  declivity,  and  that  the  earth  is  completely  saturated 
with  water.  Let  A,  represent  a  transverse  section  of  a  drain,  cut  in  this  piece 
of  ground.  By  means  of  this  drain,  we  will  suppose  that  the  upper  stratum 
of  earth  will  be  left  dry,  down  to  b,  and  that  the  water  rises  in  the  drain  no 
higher  than  e.  Now  if  the  drain  be  cut  deeper  still,  say  down  to  d,  it  is 
evident  that  the  water  will  not  then  rise  so  high  in  the  drain  as  before;  that  is, 
while  the  general  wetness  of  the  land  remains  the  same.  Let  it  rise  to  /. 
It  is  evident  from  bare  inspection,  that  now,  since  the  water  in  the  whole  drain, 
a,  e,f,d,  is  down  to/,  a  greater  depth  of  earth  from  the  surface  downward, 
say  to  c,  must  be  left  dry,  than  when  the  water  stood  at  e. — Thus  far  we  have 
supposed  that  the  water  in  the  drain  runs  off  through  some  outlet.  But 
suppose  that  there  is  no  outlet,  and  that  a  piece  of  Wet  pouchy  land  not 
covered  with  standing  water,  is  surrounded  by  other  land  higher  than  itself 
Let  a,  be  a  drain  cut  in  it.  As  soon  as  the  earth  which  filled  the  space  now 
occvipied  by  the  drain  is  removed,  the  water  will  ooze  into  it  from  the  ad- 
joining strata  of  earth,  a,  b,  c;  and  as  the  water  has  now  a  greater  space  to 
fill,  it  must  of  course  sink  below  the  surface  a,  and  leave  a  portion  of  it  dry. 
The  more  the  capacity  of  the  drain  is  increased,  the  more  this  effect  will 
take  place.  If  the  drain  is  cut  down  into  a  hard  stratum  of  earth  not  per- 
vious to  water,  the  effect  will  be  greater  still,  because  in  that  case  no  water 
oozes  from  the  sices  of  this  stratum  to  help  fill  the  drain,  but  the  drain  is 
filled  only  by  the  water  which  lies  above  such  stratum. — We  often  meet  with 
land  of  the  last  description,  wet  and  pouchy,  but  on  which  no  water  ever  rises 
above  the  surface,  uidess  in  peculiarly  wet  seasons.  A  drain  cut  wide  and  deep 
in  such  land,  might  sometimes  answer  a  good  purpose,  on  the  principles  last 
mentioned.  If  the  earth  taken  from  the  drain  should  be  spread  upon  the  land, 
the  latter  would  thereby  be  raised,  and  perhaps  otherwise  improved.  The  loss 
*f  land  which  the  drain  would  occasion,  would  be  more  than  made  up  by  the 
knperior  quality  which  the  remain  <>r  would  require. 

The  most  expeditious,  effectual  aid  economical  mode  of  making  a  drain, 
would  undoubtedly  be  to  use  oxen  and  a  scraper,  or  ox-shovel,  as  it  is  some 
times  called:  an  instrument  well  known   in  this  country,  in  the  making  of 


ON  DRAINING.  89 

1.  Surface-water. — On  clay  soils,  wetness  is  commonly  produced 
'fey  surface-water.  These  soils  are  of  different  kinds,  varying  both 
in  their  color  and  texture;  but  they  all  possess,  in  a  greater  or  smaller 
degree,  those  adhesive  qualities,  which  retain  the  water  that  falls  upon 
the  surface,  until  it  is  either  drawn  off  by  art,  or  exhaled  by  the  sun 
and   the  atmosphere.     Such   soils,  therefore,  require  the  aid  both 

roads.  In  some  cases  this  mode  might  not  answer,  as  in  very  miry  grounds, 
and  lands  just  cleared  of*  timber.  But  where  lands  are  very  miry,  if  the 
process  is  begun  at  the  outlet  for  the  water,  and  there  indeed,  it  ought  alw  lys 
to  be  begun,  the  next  adjoining  portion  will  generally  be  made  so  dry,  as  to 
allow  being  trod  upon  in  a  proper  season;  and  in  this  way  a  drain  may  by 
degrees,  be  carried  on  towards  the  centre.  In  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty, 
drains  may  probably  be  effected  in  this  mode.  Where  the  ground  will  admit 
of  it,  two  men,  a  boy,  and  two  yoke  of  oxen,  will  accomplish  more  business 
of  this  sort  in  a  day,  than  half  a  dozen  men  in  the  same  time,  with  only  shapes 
and  shovels.  Whenever  the  labor  of  cattle  can  be  substituted,  in  this  country, 
for  human  labor,  policy  requires  it  to  be  done.  Such  a  substitution  is 
certainly  practicable  in  the  present  case,  and  merits  consideration.  The 
surface  of  wet  and  miry  lands  is  usually  full  of  inequnlities;  if  a  scraper  is 
employed  in  draining  them,  the  earth  taken  from  the  drain  is  easily  landed 
in  any  hollow  spot  which  needs  to  be  filled;  and  if  there  are  no  such  hollows, 
or  they  have  already  been  filled,  the  earth  may  be  spread  over  the  surface  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  do  the  most  good.  If  the  earth  is  not  wanted  for  other 
purposes,  it  is  recommended  to  drop  and  spread  it,  if  practicable,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  the  general  surface  of  the  land  sloping  towards  the  drain, 
that  the  water  may  the  more  readily  incline  towards  it  and  pass  off.  At  some 
distance  below  the  surface  in  peat  grounds,  there  is  usually  found  a  hard 
stratum  of  earth,  called  in  the  common  language  of  our  farmers,  hard-pan. 
This  hard-pan  if  ploughed  into,  scraped  out,  and  spread  on  the  surface, 
would  greatly  improve  the  texture  of  such  soils.  This  furnishes  another 
argument  in  favor  of  using  a  scraper  in  draining,  for  in  no  other  way  can  the 
upper  earth  taken  out  of  the  drains,  be  so  cheaply  removed,  and  put  on  the 
adjoining  grounds:  nor  in  any  other  way  can  the  hard-pan  be  so  easily 
broken  up  and  carried  off,  nor  in  any  other  way,  oftentimes,  can  suitable, 
earth  be  so  well  obtained  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  it  over  the  surface, 
with  a  view  to  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil.  If  the  object  be  to  pile  the 
earth  from  the  drains  into  heaps  with  a  view  to  composts,  this  purpose  i§ 
completely  accomplished  by  means  of  the  scraper. 

When  peat-grounds  are  drained,  as  a  general  rule  it  will  be  found  best  to 
keep  them  for  a  considerable  time  afterwards  in  pasture.  If  well  pastured, 
the  coarse  natural  grasses  are  kept  back,  and  better  ones  take  their  place.. 
White  clover,  in  particular,  seems  to  delight  in  such  soils,  when  treated  in  this; 
manner.  But  another  important  advantage  is  derived  from  pasturing.  The 
trampling  of  the  cattle  serves  to  destroy  the  bogs  which  usually  deform  such 
grounds,  and  to  give  consistence  and  compactness  to  the  soil.  This  last  is  a 
very  important  consideration,  for  one  of  the  greatest  defects  of  such  soils  is, 
their  extreme  porosity  and  lightness.  Where  the  soil  consists  almost  entirely 
of  peaty  matter,  with  little  or  no  mixture  of  real  earth,  and  extends  to  a 
considerable  depth,  it  ought  seldom  or  never  to  be  ploughed  for  the  purpose  of 
tillage.  It  is  labor  and  expense  absolutely  trown  away,  to  attempt  the  tillage 
of  such  a  soil,  until  a  portion  of  loam  or  other  earth  has  been  incorporated 
with  it.  It  is  of  little  value  even  for  pasture,  until  the  process  of  draining  it, 
and  the  treading  of  the  animals  kept  on  it,  have  increased  its  compactness: 
then  indeed,  it  becomes,  if  sufficiently  dry,  of  real  value,  and  no  kind  of 
land,  perhaps,  will  yield  to  it  in  productiveness  of  summer  feed.  But 
ploughing  alone  undoes  what  has  thus  been  gained,  and  increases,  rather 
than  diminishes,  its  natural  porosity.  Such  lands  may  be  made  capable  of 
tillage  by  the  addition  of  earthy  matter,  and  the  more  compact  that  matter 
the  better.  Yet  after  all  the  expense  of  carting  such  earthy  matter,  especially 
if  from  a  distance,  will  be  so  great  as  will  seldom  justify  a  resort  so  this  mode 
of  improvement,   in  the  present  situation  of  this   country;     The   time  may 

12 


9D  »N  DRAINING. 

of  surface  and  of  under  drains,  to  relieve  them  from  superabundant 
moisture. 

2.  Absorbing  soils. — Loamy  soils  absorb  water  freely,  and  swell 
with  it.  They  usually  retain,  however,  a  greater  quantity  than  is 
necessary.  This  is  particularly  the  case,  when  they  have  a  strong 
and  impervious  subsoil,  through  which  no  water  can  penetrate.  As 
this  surplus  quantity  is  highly  injurious  to  vegetation,  it  ought  to  be 
got  rid  of.  Sandy  soils,  on  a  retentive  bottom,  also  require  draining, 
the  water  as  it  cannot  descend  lower,  being  lodged  in  the  upper 
stratum ;  but  there  is  seldom  a  necessity  to  go  deeper  than  a  few- 
inches,  into  the  clay,  on  which  the  upper  soil  is  incumbent. 

3.  Land  Springs. — In  many  cases,  soils  are  greatly  intermixed, 
and  changes  of  sand  and  clay,  or  substances  that  are  porous  and 
retentive,  will  be  found  in  the  same  field.  Draining,  in  such  cases, 
is  attended  with  more  difficulty,  and  requires  more  skill,  than  where 
the  surface,  and  internal  strata  are  thick,  and  regularly  disposed. 
The  means  by  which  this  can  be  best  effected  at  a  moderate  expense, 
is  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  soil  by  examining  its  produce.  The 
porous  soils  collect  reservoirs  of  water,  which  augment  in  times  of 
rain,  to  the  full  level  of  the  surrounding  clay,  from  which  it  bursts 
out,  and  forms  a  kind  of  temporary  spring,  which  renders  the  land 
over  which  it  flows,  wet,  and  unproductive.  It  then  perhaps  is 
absorbed  by  another  porous  stratum,  and  produces  similar  effects. 
Formerly,  this  mischief  was  endeavored  to  be  remedied  by  small 
drains,  made  over  the  whole  field,  which  seemed  thus  to  be  eqally 
effected;  but  by  cutting  a  trench,  from  the  nearest  and  lowest  part  of 
the  field  to  be  drained,  up  to  the  highest  and  most  distant  sand-bank, 
in  such  a  direction,  as  to  psss  through  the  intermediate  sand-beds, 
the  soil  is  radically  cured.  Besides  these  main  drains,  however^ 
side-cuts  are  often  necessary. 

4.  Springs  from  subjacent  Water. — A  knowledge  of  the  causes, 
and  the  nature  of  springs,  arising  from  subjacent  water,  is  so  closely 
connected  with  the  principles  of  draining,  that  it  is  necessary  to 
explain  it  at  more  length.  The  earth  is  known  to  be  composed  of 
various  strata,  which,  being  in  their  nature  and  quality  of  opposite 
consistence,  have  acquired  the  distinguishing  names  of  porous  and 
impervious.  Sand,  gravel,  calcarous  earths,  and  various  kinds  of 
rock,  the  parts  of  which  are  separted  by  frequent  clinks  and  fissures, 
are  denominated  porous  soils; — clay,  shale,  till,  and  certain  kinds 

arrive  when  it  may  be  done  with  profit;  and  in  particular  cases,  it  may  be 
attempted  now;  but  as  a  general  rule,  it  will  be  found  for  a  good  while  to 
come,  that  to  pasture  is  the  best  mode  of  treating  our  peat  lands,  where  the 
peat  is  deeper  than  the  reach  of  the  plough.*  Further  reasons  might  be 
given  for  this  opinion ;  but  this  is  not  the  place  for  a  minute  inquiry  into  the 
subject.  Although  it  may  not  be  proper  to  bring  lands  of  this  description 
into  tillage,  it  may  nevertheless,  be  sometimes  advantageous  to  drain  them 
with  a  view  to  pasture  solely.  Such  pastures  are  often  very  productive ; 
cattle  are  fond  of  feeding  on  the  grasses  which  they  produce,  and  will  often 
give  them  the  preference  to  those  which  grow  on  uplands,  even  when  the 
latter  are  of  the  best  artificial  kinds. 

Amer.  Ed 
*It  may  sometimes  answer  to  mow  them. 


ON  MANURES.  91 

of  gravel,  with  a  mixture  of  argillaceous  and  cementing  particles  in 
their  composition,  and  rocks  of  a  solid  and  compact  nature,  and 
without  fissures,  are  the  principal  strata  that  resists  the  admission  of 
water,  and  are  thence  termed  impervious.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  springs  must  originate  from  water  falling,  either  in  the  shape  of 
rain,  or  dew,  or  the  melting  of  snow  and  hail,  upon  such  porous  and 
absorbent  bodies;  and  that  the  water  subsiding  downwards,  until  it 
is  obstructed  in  its  passage  by  these  impenetrable  substances,  there 
forms  reservoirs  of  considerable  magnitude,  which  afterwards 
burst  forth  in  all  those  different  appearances  which  are  met  with. 
Thus  springs  are  formed,  the  strength  of  which  must  depend  upon 
the  extent  of  high  ground  which  receives  and  retains  the  rain-water, 
the  size  of  the  reservoirs,  and  the  supply  they  furnish. 

5.  Back-water. — A  frequent  cause  of  wetness  is,  the  stagnation  of 
water  in  the  ditches  that  surround  fields,  particularly  such  as  lie  in 
the  upper  side  of  the  enclosure,  where  the  water,  being  confined, 
finds  its  way  downwards  into  the  open  parts  of  the  subsoil,  and  oozes 
out  to  the  surface,  forming  in  wet  weather,  all  the  appearances  of, 
and  producing  nearly  the  same  effect  as,  a  natural  spring.  Water 
conveyed  in  a  drain,  or  small  stream  for  mills,  or  confined  in  a 
mill-dam,  or  pond,  has  often  the  same  effect.  Where  this  happens 
in  drains,  the  stagnant  water  should  be  removed,  by  giving  more 
depth  or  declivity,  to  the  ditch  in  which  it  lies.  Where  a  dam 
occasions  the  mischief,  a  cut  should  be  made  on  its  lower  side,  to 
intercept  any  water  that  may  ooze  through  it.  Old  marl  pits  fall  of 
water,  and  cattle-ponds  improperly  constructed,  sometimes  occasion 
this  sort  of  mischief. 


2.  Calcareous  Manures. 

1.  Advantages  of  Lime. — Though  there  are  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  yet  in  general,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  that  unless  where 
a  soil  has  by  nature,  enough  of  calcareous  matter  in  its  composition, 
for  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  it  can  neither  be  brought  into  its  .most 
fertile  state,  nor  will  other  measures  be  so  useful  as  they  ought,  if 
lime,  or  some  other  calcareous  earth,  be  not  previously  applied.  By 
lime  spread  upon  a  moory  soil,  good  herbage  is  produced,  where 
nothing  but  heath,  and  unpalatable  grasses  grew  before.  By  the  same 
means,  grass  lands,  instead  of  yielding  nothing  but  bent,  and  other 
inferior  grasses,  have  been  covered  with  those  of  a  more  valuable 
description.  The  utility  of  lime  to  turnips  is  so  great,  that  though 
in  the  same  field,  where  no  lime  had  been  applied,  the  crop  died 
away ;  yet  in  the  limed  part,  the  turnips  flourished  with  unabated 
vigour.     On  the  Mendip  lands  in  Somerset,  by  the  application  of 


yz  ON  MANURES. 

lime,  the  value  of  land  was  raised,  from  4s.  to  30s.  per  acre ;  and 
dutfg,  which  previous  to  liming,  had  no  sensible  effect,  operated, 
near  its  application,  as  on  other  lands.  Macclesfield  forest  in 
Cheshire,  and  vast  tracts  in  the  northern  and  more  elevated  parts  of 
Derbyshire,  and  the  adjacent  districts,  have  been  astonishingly 
improved  by  the  same  means.  The  rye  lands  of  Herefordshire,  m 
1636,  refused  to  produce  wheat,  peas,  or  vetches;  but  since  the 
introduction  of  lime  they  have  been  so  fertilized,  as  to  be  successfully 
applied  to  the  growth  of  every  species  of  corn.  In  maiden  soils  of 
a  tolerable  quality,  the  richest  manure,  will  not  enable  them  to  bring 
any  crops,  but  those  of  oats  or  rye,  to  maturity ;  whereas  if  they 
receive  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime,  crops  of  peas,  barley,  or  wheat, 
may  be  raised  to  advantage.  The  benefit  resulting  from  the  use  of 
•lime,  has  been  indisputable  proved  in  the  same  farm,  for  the  richer 
parts  that  were  left  unlimed,  were  uniformly  inferior  in  produce, 
to  the  poorer  that  had  been  limed,  during  a  period  of  not  less  than 
twenty-one  years,  under  the  same  course  of  management. 

2.  The  principles  on  which  Lime  operates  as  a,  Manure. — Quick- 
lime in  powder,  or  dissolved  in  water,  is  injurious  to  plants  ;  hence 
grass,  watered  with  lime  water,  is  destroyed.  But  lime  freshly  burnt, 
or  slacked,  fotms  a  compost  of  vegetable  matter,  which  is  soluble  in 
water,  and  nutritive  to  plants.  Mild  lime,  (as  chalk,  or  quick-lime 
again  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,)  chiefly  operates,  by  impro- 
ving the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  its  relation  to  absorption. 

3.  The  various  sorts  of  Limestone. — Sometimes  limestone  is 
almost  perfectly  pure,  as  is  the  case  with  marble,  which  frequently 
contains  scarcely  any  other  substance  but  calcareous  matter.  Several 
sorts  of  limestone,  however,  have  mixtures  of  clay  and  sand,  in 
various  proportions,  by  which  the  efficacy  of  the  manure,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  these  substances,  is  considerably  diminished. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  analyze  limestone,  to  ascertain  the 
proportion  of  pure  lime,  before  it  is  advisable  to  use  so  expensive  an 
article  in  great  quantities,  more  especially  if  it  must  be  conveyed 
from  a  distance.  Bituminous  limestone  makes  good  manure.  But 
the  magnesian  is  the  species  which  requires  the  greatest  attention. 
Limestone  sometimes  contains  from  23*3  to  23*5  of  magnesia,  in 
which  case  it  would  be  injurious  to  weak  soils,  to  apply  more  than 
from  25  to  30  bushels  per  statute  acre,  though  in  rich  soils,  double 
that  quantity  may  be  used,  and  still  more  with  peat,  on  which  soil 
it  would  have  a  most  powerful  effect  in  producing  fertility. 

4.  'Mode  of  preparing  it  for  Use. — Limestone  is  burnt  in  kilns 
of  various  constructions.  It  is  applied  with  advantage  to  soils 
recently  reclaimed,  in  a  caustic  state ;  but  is  generally  slacked,  by 
throwing  water  upon  the  lumps,  until  they  crack  and  swell,  and  fall 
down  into  a  fine  powder.  This  operation  when  it  is  to  be  done, 
should  not  be  delayed,  for,  if  properly  burnt,  calcined  lime  is  easily 
reduced  into  a  fine  powder,  which  may  not  be  the  case,  if  the  slacking 
be  postposed.  If  water  cannot  easily  be  obtained,  the  lumps  may 
either  be  divided  into  small  heaps,  and  covered  with  earth,  by  the 
moisture  of  which  they  are  soon  pulverized,  or  they  may  be  made 
into  large  heaps,  the  lumps  and  earth  in  alternate  strata,  the  lumps 


ON  MANURES.  -  93 

tour  inches,  and  the  earth  six  inches  thick,  and  the  whole  covered 
with  earth.  Where  it  can  easily  be  had,  it  is  a  great  advantage,  to 
slack  the  calcined  limestone  for  manure,  with  sea-water,  or  urine. 
When  applied  to  land  in  a.  powdery  state,  lime  tends  to  bring  any 
hard  vegetable  matter  that  the  soil  contains,  into  a  more  rapid 
state  of  decomposition  and  solution,  so  as  to  render  it  a  proper  food 
for  plants. 

5.  Application. — Summer  is  the  proper  season  for  liming  land. 
That  experienced  farmer,  Mr.  Rennie  of  Phantassie,  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  most  profitable  period  for  applying  lime  is,  when  the  land  is 
under  summer  fallow  in  the  months  of  June  and  July,  that  it  may 
be  completely  mixed  with  the  soil  before  the  crop  is  sown.  This  is 
also  the  general  practice  in  other  districts.  For  a  turnip  crop,  it 
should  be  laid  on  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  turnips  are  drilled, 
in  order  that  the  lime  may  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil, 
by  the  ploughings  and  harrowings  it  will  receive;  the  land  will  thus 
have  time  to  cool,  and  the  lin  e  will  not  dry  up  the  moisture  necessary 
for  bringing  the  turnips  into  leaf.  For  potatoes,  lime  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  as  it  is  apt  to  burn  and  blister  their  skins.  When 
applied  to  old  ley,  it  is  a  good  practice,  to  spread  it  on  the  surface, 
previously  to  the  land  being  broken  up,  by  which  it  is  fixed  firmly  on 
the  sward.  One  year  has  been  found  of  use,  but  when  clone  three 
years  before,  it  has  produced  still  greater  advantages;  in  the  former 
case,  the  increase  of  oats,  being  only  at  the  rate  of  6  to  1 ,  and  in 
the  latter,  that  of  10  to  1,  of  the  seed  sown.  The  quantity  applied 
must  vary  according  to  the  soil  From  240  to  300  bushels,  of 
unslacked  lime,  may  be  applied  on  strong  lands  with  advantage. 
Even  600  bushels  have  been  laid  on  at  once  on  strong  clays  with 
great  success.,  On  light  soils,  a  much  smaller  quantity  will  answer, 
say  from  150  to  200  bushels,  but  these  small  doses  ought  to  be  more 
frequntly  repeated.  When  applied  on  the  surface  of  bogs  or  moors, 
the  quantity  used  is  very  considerable,  and  the'more  that  is  laid  on, 
the  greater  the  improvement.  The  real  quantity,  however,  of  cal- 
careous matter  used,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  stone.  It  often 
happens,  that  five  chaldrons  do  not  furnish  more  effective  manure 
than  three,  because  they  do  not  contain  three-fifts  of  calcareous 
matter. 

6.  Effects  of  Lime. — Many  farmers  have  subjected  themselves  to 
an  expense,  at  the  rate  of  ten  shillings  per  acre  per  annum,  for  the 
lime  they  used,  and  have  been  amply  remunerated.  The  benefit 
derived  from  the  cultivation  of  green  crops,  is  sufficient  for  that 
purpose.  Such  crops  may  be  raised  by  large  quantities  of  dung; 
but  where  calcareous  substances  are  applied,  it  is  proved  by  long 
experience,  that  a  less  quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable  manure  will 
answer  the  purpose.  This  is  making  the  farm-yard  dung  go  farther, 
with  more  powerful,  and  more  permanent  effects ;  and,  from  the 
weightier  crops  thus  raised,  the  quantity  of  manure  on  a  farm,  will 
be  most  materially  augmented.  Indeed,  upon  land  in  a  proper  state 
for  calcareous  application,  (as  old  ley,)  lime  is  much  superior  to 
dung.  Its  effects  continue  for  a  longer  period,  while  the  crops 
produced  are  of  a  superior  quality,  and   less  susceptible  of  injury, 


94 


ON  MANURES. 


from  the  excesses  of  drought  and  moisture.  The  ground  likewise, 
more  especially  if  it  be  of  a  strong  nature,  is  much  more  easily 
wrought;  and  in  some  instances,  the  saving  of  labor  alone,  would 
be  sufficient  to  induce  a  farmer  to  lime  his  land,  were  no  greater 
benefit  derived  from  the  application,  than  the  opportunity  thereby 
gained,  of  working  it  in  a  more  perfect  manner. 

7.  Rules  for  the  Management  of  Lime. — 1.  It  is  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  which  lime  is  proposed  to  be 
applied;  and  whether  it  has  formerly  been  limed,  and  to  what  extent. 
In  general  it  may  be  observed,  that  strong  loams  and  stubborn  clays, 
require  a  full  dose  of  lime  to  bring  them  into  action,  as  such  soils  are 
capable  of  absorbing  a  great  quantity  of  calcareous  matter.  Lighter 
soils,  however,  require  less  lime  to  stimulate  them;  and  may  be  in- 
jured, by  administering  a  quantity  of  lime,  recently  calcined,  that 
would  prove  moderately  beneficial  to  those  of  a  heavy  nature.  2. 
As  the  effects  of  lime  greatly  depend  on  its  intimate  admixture  with 
the  surface  soils,  it  is  expedient  to  have  it  in  a  powdered  state  before 
it  is  applied,  and  the  drier  and  the  more  perfectly  powdered,  the 
better.  3.  Lime  having  a  tendency  to  sink  in  the  soil,  it  cannot  be 
ploughed  in  with  too  shallow  a  furrow  or  kept  too  near  the  surface. 
4.  Lime  ought  not  to  be  applied,  a  second  time,  to  weak  or  poor 
soils,  unless  mixed  with  a  compost ;  after  which  the  land  should  be 
immediately  laid  down  to  grass. 

2.  Pounded  Limestone. — This  substance  differs  from  calcined 
lime  in  containing  fixed  air,  or  carbonic  acid,  and  likewise  as  being 
insoluble  in  water.  Machines  were  erected  in  Scotland,  for  pounding 
limestone,  many  years  ago,  but  unfortunately,  were  destroyed,  before 
the  experiment  had  been  fairly  tried.  There  is  evidence,  that  it  was 
attended  with  success,  so  far  as  the  experiment  had  gone.  The 
practice  might  certainly  be  of  use  in  districts  where  fuel  is  scarce. 
The  scrapings  or  dust  of  rods,  made  with  limestone,  which  is  in 
fact  pounded  limestone,  has  been  used  with  advantage  as  a  manure, 
in  Gloucestershire  and  other  districts,  and  ought  never  to  be 
neglected. 

3.  Limestone  Gravel. — This  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  manure  for 
peat-bogs,  its  great  weight  giving  the  pressure  so  much  wanted.  It 
is  of  immense  benefit  to  Ireland,  and  may  probably  be  found  in 
ether  parts  of  the  United  kingdom  if  diligently  searched  for. 

3.   Composts. 

The  utility  of  composts  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of 
numbers,  in  various  districts.  The  subject  may  be  considered  under 
the  following  heads:  1.  The  materials  used  ;  2.  The  soils  or  crops 
to  which  it  should  be  applied;  and,  3.  The  effects  produced. 

1.  Materials. — Unslacked  lime,  and  earth  of  different  sorts,  are 
the  substances  commonly  used.  Quicklime  is  the  proper  stimulus 
for  bringing  the  powers  of  a  compost  into  action;  operating  upon  a 
heap  of  earth  in  some  degree  as  yeast  does  upon  a  quantity  of  flour 
or  meal.     Enough  ought  to  be  applied,  to  excite  a  species  of  fermen- 


ON  MANURES.  95 

tation  in  the  heap,  and  to  neutralize  any  pernicious  mineral  substan- 
ces which  may  exist  in  it. 

The  formation  and  conveyance  of  compost  being  attended  with 
much  expense,  where  circumstances  will  admit  of  it,  horses,  instead 
of  manual  labor,  ought  to  be  employed  in  the  process  of  preparation, 
and  the  compost  should  be  prepared  in  the  field  to  which  it  is  after- 
wards to  be  applied. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  a  number  of  experiments,  that  two 
bushels  of  unslacked  lime,  are  sufficient  for  each  cubic  yard  of  earth 
of  a  medium  quality,  and  as  80  cubic  yards  of  earth  are  sufficient 
to  manure  an  acre,  1(50  bushels  of  unslacked  lime  is  the  quantity  re- 
quired. To  obtain  this  quantity  of  earth,  it  is  the  practice  of  some 
farmers  to  plough  the  head-ridges  at  both  ends  of  the  field,  ten 
inches  deep,  and  to  collect  one  half  of  this,  which  can  be  often 
spared,  without  any  loss,  as  the  head-ridges  are  generally  too  high, 
in  consequence  of  the  earth  accumulated  in  the  course  of  years? 
from  the  plough  being  cleared  every  time  it  turns.  It  has  been 
calculated,  that  where  a  head-ridge  is  18  feet  broad,  72  feet  of  it  in 
length,  ploughed  ten  inches  deep,  will  produce  40  cubic  yards  of 
earth,  and  consequently  the  two  head-ridges  will  produce  80  cubic 
yards  of  compost  for  the  field  to  be  manured. 

Composts  are  frequently  made  of  various  materials,  as  several 
sorts  of  earth,  lime,  old  mortar  and  plaster,  green  vegetables,  before 
they  run  to  seed,  soft  chalk,  tanners'  bark,  sawdust,  soap-ashes, 
dung,  &c.  It  is  recommended,  that  instead  of  being  laid  in  regular 
layers,  they  should  be  mixed  as  much  as  possible,  in  forming  the 
heap.  A  fermentation  is  soon  excited,  and  the  oftener  the  heap  is 
turned,  so  much  the  more  will  firmentation  be  promoted. 

A  mode  of  making  compost  was  suggested  by  the  late  Lord 
Meadowbank,  of  which  peat  is  the  basis.  It  was  not  unusual  in 
various  parts  of  Scotland,  to  bed  cattle,  and  even  sheep,  with  peat, 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  quantity  of  manure ;  but  Lord 
Meadowbank  was  the  first  individual  in  this  country  who  investigated 
the  properties  of  that  species  of  manure,  and  explained  them  on 
scientific  principles.  The  result  is,  that  one  ton  of  dung,  wilt 
ferment  three  tons  of  peat,  or  moss  earth.  This  is  a  most  valuable 
discovery,  and  must,  if  duly  attended  to,  greatly  enrich  many  hitherto 
neglected  districts.  The  great  advantage  of  this  compost  is,  that  it 
has  nothing  but  inert  vegetable  matter  to  act  upon,  whereas,  when 
lime  is  mixed  with  rich  earth,  it  may  have  the  effect  of  dissipating 
the  gasceous  matters  it  contains,  and  of  rendering  it  proportionably 
less  valuable. 

2.  Composts  are  peculiarly  well  calculated  for  grass-lands,  and 
ought  to  supersede  the  offensive,  and  wasteful  practise,  of  laying 
putrescent  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  by  which  a  very  large 
proportion  of  its  most  valuable  component  parts,  is  lost  in  the  atmos- 
phere. They  are  likewise  of  great  use  to  moorish  lands,  augmenting 
their  staple,  and  adding  to  them  a  number  of  valuable  and  enriching 
substances.  In  regard  to  sandy  or  clayey  soils,  composts,  principally 
consisting  of  articles  different  from  their  general  nature  respectively, 
will  improve  their  texture,  and  convert  them  into  loams. 


96  ON  PARING  AND  BURNING. 

3.  The  effects  of  composts  are  highly  satisfactory.  In  regard  to 
grass-lands,  experience  has  shown,  that  they  at  once  improve  their 
quality,  and  check  for  years,  the  progress  of  moss,  or  even  unprofita- 
ble grasses.  In  thin  moorish  soils,  composts  properly  and  repeatedly 
applied,  alter  the  nature  of  the  soil;  it  becomes  more  ferrile,  retains 
its  moisture  better,  and  does  not  suffer  by  the  summer's  drought, 
which  would  otherwise  burn  up  the  crops.  The  effects  of  ihe 
Meadowbank  compost  are  still  more  extraordinary  ;  a  farmer  in 
Roxburghshire,  (Mr.  Thompson,  of  Bewlie,)  having  raised  as  good 
turnips,  and  as  productive  crops  of  wheat,  after  fallow,  on  good  soils, 
manured  with  this  compost,  as  from  dung. 

It  is  a  circumstance  not  to  be  omitted,  that  lime  will  operate  in 
compost,  upon  lands  that  had  been  exhausted  by  the  over  frequent, 
or  too  abundant  application  of  lime  or  marl,  even  where  it  had  not 
succeeded  when  used  by  itself.  This  is  a  strong  recommendation 
of  such  mixed  manure,  as  land  may  thus  be  cultivated  to  advantage, 
that  would  otherwise  remain  unproductive. 

The  perusal  of  this  Section,  must  satisfy  any  one,  of  the  endless 
sources  of  fertility,  which  may  be  obtained  by  the  active  and  indus- 
trious farmer;  and  which,  aided  by  judicious  rotations  of  crops,  can 
hardly  fail  to  preserve  his  fields  in  a  constant  state  of  increasing 
productiveness.  It  were  to  be  wished,  however,  that  various  doubt- 
ful points,  regarding  the  nature  and  effects  of  manures,  and  the 
most  advantageous  modes  of  application,  were  ascertained  by  a 
series  of  experiments,  tried  on  different  soils,  in  different  climates, 
and  under  different  courses  of  crops. — Agriculture  will  never  reach 
that  perfection  and  certainty,  which  it  ought  to  attain,  until  that 
measure  be  accomplished. 


Sect.  IV. — On  Paring  and  Burning. 

» 

Paring  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  burning  the  sods  or  turf  thus 
obtained,  is  an  operation  in  husbandry,  highly  advatageous,  when 
judiciously  executed;  though  if  the  subsequent  tillage  and  crops  be 
improper,  the  soil  must  necessarily  be  exhausted,  and  essentially 
deteriorated.  Hence  it  need  not  excite  wonder,  that  the  utility  of 
this  practice  has  been  much  contested.  The  principles,  however, 
on  which  this  improvement  is  adopted,  are  now  in  a  great  measure 
ascertained. 

In  discussing  this  subject,  it  is  proposed  to  consider, — The  soils 
which  are  calculated  for  this  operation  ; — The  instruments  used  in 
paring; — The  depth  of  the  turf  or  sod  ; — The  mode  in  which  the 
burning  should  be  conducted; — The  expense; — The  season  ; — The 
nature  of  the  ashes,  and  the  snbstances   mixed  with  them ; — Their, 


ON  PARING  AND  BURNING.  97 

Management  ; — The  crops  which  should  immediately  follow; — The 
rotations  to  be  afterwards  adopted  ; — The  advantages  of  the  prac- 
tice ; — Its  disadvantages ; — and,  the  result  of  the  whole  inquiry. 

Soils. — Paring  and  burning  are  in  general,  considered  to  be 
essential  for  the  improvement  of  peat-mosses; — For  unreclaimed 
lands,  with  a  sufficient  depth  of  soil ; — Chalky  downs; — Sainfoin 
layers ; — and  Old  rough-swarded  pastures.  With  regard  to  sandy 
soils,  and  also  those  distinguished  for  their  fertility,  the  practice  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  unless  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

Fens,  and  Peat-mosses  — It  is  scarcely  possible  to  improve  fen 
and  peat  soils  from  a  state  of  nature,  to  that  of  profitable  cultivation, 
without  the  assistance  of  fire.  The  spontaneous  growth  is  so 
worthless,  that  it  must  be  destroyed;  and  that  is  most  readily  and 
effectually  done  by  paring  and  burning,  operations  to  which  these 
soils  are  peculiarly  well  calculated.  The  surface  is  easily  pared ; — 
the  soil  is  more  inflammable  than  any  other ; — and  the  turf  can  be 
converted  into  ashes  at  a  moderate  expense 

Unreclauned  hands. — Where  the  soil  is  in  a  wild  uncultivated 
state,  and  its  vegetative  powers  in  a  great  measure  dormant  aril  in- 
active they  cannot  be  called  into  full  action  without  some  stimulus. 
In  that  case,  the  ashes  produced  by  sod-burning,  with  the  aid  of  iiuie, 
are  generally  necessary,  and  always  effectual.  Indeed  where  land, 
covered  with  thick  -turned  coarse  grass,  is  broken  up  and  sown, 
without  having  previously  undergone  this  process,  the  old  rubbish 
carries  most  of  the  moisture  from  the  seed,  and  proves  a  harbour  for 
grubs,  slugs,  and  other  vermin ;  whereas  when  the  turf  is  burnt, 
these  enemies  to  cultivation  are  destroyed  ; — the  causes  of  sterili/y 
are  removed, — and  in  tts  stead,  a  fertilizing  power  is  created,  which, 
^thout  the  aid  of  this  process,  could  not  have  been  obtained. 

It  is  remarked  in  a  work  distinguished  for  its  ability,  that  the 
difference  between  the  two  methods  of  breaking  up  rough  ground, 
(either  paring  and  burning  or  ploughing  merely,)  is  more  than  the 
value  of  the  freehold  in  favor  of  the  former.  The  one  opens  an 
immediate  source  of  great  profit  ;  whereas  the  other  leads  to 
nothing  but  disapppointment  and  expense. 

Advantages. — The  benefits  resulting  from  paring  and  burning, 
are  numerous,  and  important.  1.  By  this  process,  the  various 
tribes  of  grubs  and  insects,  which  lodge  in  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
are  destroyed.  2.  By  the  same  means,  the  seeds  of  many  weeds 
are  consumed,  by  which  the  crops  would  otherwise  have  been 
injured.  3.  Not  only  are  the  stems  and  leaves  of  shrubs,  furze, 
heath,  ferns,  &c.  destroyed,  converted  into  charcoal,  and  thus  pre- 
pared for  the  food  of  plants,  out  by  extirpating  the  old  sickly  roots, 
room  is  left  for  others,  younger  and  more  vigorous.  4.  The  soil  is 
at  once  completely  pulverized.  5.  The  texture  of  soils,  in  their 
natural  state,  tough,  tenacious,  and  unfit  for  corn  crops,  is  improved, 
and  prepared  for  cultivation.  6.  By  paring  and  burning,  manure 
can  be  obtained  at  a  trifling  expense,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
improvement ;  it  is  found  on  the  spot,  free  from  carriage,  which  in 
some  cases  costs  more  than  the  manure  itself :  and  a  stock  of  manure 
is  thus  provided,  which,  under  judicious  management,  may  serve 

13 


98  ON  PARING  AND  BURNING. 

to  keep  the  land  in  fertility,  until  it  shall  be  brought  into  a  regular 
ctfurse  of  husbandry.  These  are  important  advantages,  and  he  must 
be  a  bad  farmer,  who  cannot  continue,  for  any  length  of  time,  land 
so  enriched,  in  a  high  state  of  productiveness.  7-  Even  the  heat 
communicated  to  the  soil  by  burning,  and  the  mixture  of  a  substance 
that  has  passed  though  fire,  is  found  to  be  advantageous. 

Disadvantages. — Among  the  objections  to  this  practice  it  is 
urged,  that  shallow  soils  are  thus  rendered  shallower.  But  others 
maintain,  that  the  earthy  parts  of  the  soil,  are  neither  consumed  nor 
diminished  by  burning :  for  though  the  bulk  of  the  sod  or  turf  be 
diminished,  this  arises  solely  from  the  burning  of  the  roots  and 
vegetable  substances ;  and  that  in  regard  to  shallow  soils,  they  are 
more  improved  by  the  process,  than  any  other  ;  for,  when  enriched 
by  this  process,  more  subsoil  can  be  safely  incorporated  with  them. 
It  is  likewise  said,  that  as  the  animal  and  vegetable  matters  contained 
in  the  turf  are  destroyed,  the  ashes  cannot  possess  any  properties  of 
a  real  fertilizing  quality:  but  the  great  ciops  produced  by  these 
ashes,  seem  to  refute  that  assertion.  It  is  farther  contended,  that  the 
soil  is  thus  deprived  of  its  natural  grasses ;  but  it  is  also  thus  deprived 
of  its  natural  weeds,  which  is  a  most  material  object.  In  regard  to 
grasses,  the  artificial  ones  thus  raised,  afford  a  much  more  abundant, 
and  valuable  article  of  produce  and  fodder,  than  all  the  natural 
grasses;  which,  on  lands  such  as  those  usually  pared  and  burnt,  are 
generally  of  the  worst  sorts. 

Some  persons  have  maintained,  that  it  would  be  a  better  plan 
to  pare  only,  to  cart  the  parings  off  the  land,  and  to  put  them  in 
heaps,  there  to  remain  till  the  mass  be  reduced  into  mould  ;  when 
these  heaps  should  be  re-carted  and  spread  on  the  land  from  which 
they  came.  This,  however,  is  a  laborious  and  expensive  process, 
which  it  would  require  a  considerable  period  of  time  to  perfect,  and 
which,  after  all,  would  be  much  less  effectual  than  paring  and 
burning. 

In  regard  to  more  general  objections ; — that  it  dissipates  what 
ought  to  be  retained; — annihilates  oil  and  mucilage; — calcines 
salts; — and  reduces  fertile  organic  matter,  into  ashes  of  very  weak 
efficacy  ; — it  may  be  answered,  that  they  seem  to  be  either  un- 
founded in  fact,  or  that  all  these  mischiefs  are  principally  to  be 
attributed  to  the  abuse  of  the  system,  and  are  by  no  means  necessarily 
connected  with  it,  under  judicious  management. 

The  result. — By  the  process  of  paring  and  burning,  a  stiff, 
damp,  and  consequently  a  cold  soil,  will  be  converted  into  one  that 
is  friable,  dry,  and  warm,  and  much  more  proper  as  a  bed  for  vegeta- 
tion. Though  some  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  or  manure  previ- 
ously in  the  soil,  may  thus  be  destroyed,  yet  such  temporary  disad- 
vantages are  amply  compensated,  by  the  dung  and  urine  of  sheep 
fed  upon  the  land,  as  well  as  by  the  texture  of  the  soil  being  perma- 
nently improved.  In  regard  to  soils,  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of 
inert  vegetable  matter,  the  destruction  of  that  excess  must  be  benefi- 
cial ;  for  the  remainder  will  be  rendered  fitter  for  cultivated  crops, 
not  only  by  the  addition  of  calcareous  earth,  but  by  the  carbonaceous 
matter  remaining  in  the  ashes,  which  is  likely  to  be  much  more  useful, 
than  the  coarse  vegetable  fiber  from  which  it  was  produced-. 


tfN  FLOODING  LAND,  99 


Sect.  VIII. — On  Flooding  Land* 


The  mode  of  improvement  by  "  Flooding"  is,  when  the  land  is 
overflowed  or  drowned  by  a  quantity  of  water,  from  a  stream  or 
lake;  by  means  of  which,  (if  it  takes  place  in  a  favorable  season,) 
the  future  production  of  crops,  both  of  grass  and  of  grain,  is  promoted. 
It  differs  completely  from  irrigation,  in  which  the  water  ought  con-  - 
stantly  to  be  in  a  flowing  state,  whereas  in  the  process  of  artificial 
flooding,  it  is  wholly,  or  nearly  stagnant. 

Along  the  margins  of  many  of  the  rivers  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, the  meadows  are  thus  improved. — When  the  floods  take  place 
in  winter,  or  spring,  they  produce  the  most  fertilizing  effects;  but 
these  flat  grounds,  being  rarely  protected  by  embankments,  they  often 
suffer  severely  from  overflowings  in  summer  and  autumn. 

The  most  striking  instance  known  in  Great  Britain,  of  advantage 
being  derived  from  the  inundations  of  a  lake,  is,  that  of  Loch  Ken, 
in  the  Stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright.  At  the  head  of  that  beautiful 
piece  of  water,  there  is  a  flat  of  about  248  statute  acres,  which  is 
rendered,  by  flooding,  one  of  the  richest  spots  in  Scotland.  Many 
acres  in  it  produce  at  the  rate  of  three  tons  of  hay  each,  and  some 
parts  of  it,  have  been  cropped  with  grain,  for  25  years  in  succession, 
without  any  manure,  except  what  it  receives  from  the  inundations  it 
experiences.  These,  however,  leave  behind  them,  a  variety  of 
enriching  substances. 

The  advantages  of  flooding,  in  favorable  circumstances,  cannot 
therefore  be  too  highly  appreciated ;  and  it  evidently  appears,  that 
water,  in  a  stagnant  state,  may  produce  the  most  beneficial  effects, 
more  especially  where  the  surface  is  incumbent  upon  an  open  subsoil 
er  bottom. 

From  the  advantageous  consequences  of  flooding,  when  done  by 
nature,  there  was  reason  to  imagine,  that  the  same  benefit  would 
result  from  it  when  artificially  executed  ;  and  this  was  formerly  at- 
tempted in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Hence  the  obsolete 
practice  of  floating  upwards,  as  it  was  termed.  For  that  purpose 
the  water  was  penned,  in  times  of  floods,  by  means  of  a  dam  or 
floodgate  across  the  bottom  of  the  meadow,  or  flat  to  be  watered. 
The  waters  were  not  suffered  to  remain  long  upon  the  land,  but 
were  let  off,  as  soon  as  it  was  judged  that  they  had  dropped  their 
sediment.  The  benefit  arising  from  this  method  of  using  flood 
waters,  it  is  said,  was  considerable  ;  but  when  the  improved  mode  of 
irrigation,  by  floating  ridges,  was  introduced,  and  found  more  advan- 
tageous, the  other  was  discontinued. 

Besides  these  meadows,  mill-ponds  thus  fertilized,  were  rendered 
dry,  and  cropped  with  oats  ;  artificial  pieces  of  water,  were  likewise 
rilled  up,  and  became  productive ;  and  by  means  of  sluices,  and 
ether  contrivances,  bogs  and  lower  greunds  were  thrown  under 


100  0N  FLOODING  LAND. 

water  during  the  winter  months,  and  greatly  enriched,  with  produc- 
tive vegetable  earth,  from  the  surface  of  the  higher  parts  The 
■waters  were  let  off  in  spring,  and  the  ground  was  than  ploughed  and 
sown.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  great  humidity  of  the  ><>il,  the 
crops  were  very  late,  and  a  wet  summer,  they  were  lodged  and 
spoiled.  In  dry  seasons,  however,  and  where  proper  attention  was 
paid  to  the  draining  and  lidging  of  the  soil,  the  returns  were  consi- 
derable, and  the  land  was  enabled,  without  manure,  to  raise  good 
crops  of  grain. 

In  discussing  this  mode  of  reclaiming  waste  lands,  it  is  proposed 
to  consider  the  following  particulars : — The  manner  in  which  thc- 
plan  ought  to  be  carried  into  effect ; — The  mode  in  which  the  flooding 
operates ; — The  kinds  of  water  calculated,  or  otherwise,  for  the 
purpose  ; — The  seasons  fittest  for  the  operation  ; — and,  The  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  attending  it. 

1.  Manner  of  carrying  the  Plan  into  effect. — This  plan  of 
improvement,  is  only  calculated  for  tracts,  where  there  is  a  command 
of  water,  and  an  opportunity  of  stemming  it  up,  so  as  to  overflow 
the  whole  surface.  In  n  any  places,  there  are  such  situations,  in 
particular  all  land-locked  peat-mosses,  that  lie  on  a  level  lower  than 
the  adjacent  springs  or  rivers.  In  some  districts  200,  300,  and  even 
400  acres  of  mossy  land,  may  be  laid  under  water,  by  a  single  bank 
at  the  outlet,  which  may  be  effected  at  a  trifling  expense.  It  is  only 
by  shutting  up  such  openings,  and  stemming  the  streams  that  flow 
through  them,  that  this  mode  of  improvement  can  be  artificially 
accomplished. 

2.  Mode  in  which  the  Flooding  operates. — Some  ingenious  reasons 
have  been  assigned,  for  the  advantages  resulting  from  this  ptocess; 
as, — that  it  promotes  the  fermentation  of  any  vegetable  matter  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact ; — and,  that  the  mechanical  weight  of  a 
body  of  stagnant  water,  must  tend  to  consolidate,  and  to  improve 
the  texture  of  a  soft  soil ; — But  the  salutary  effects  of  flooding,  may 
principally  be  ascribed  to  the  advantages  of  moisture,  so  essential 
for  vegetation  ;  and  to  the  particles  of  sand,  clay,  earth,  calcareous 
matter,  and  other  adventitious  substances,  with  which  the  waters  arc 
impregnated. 

3.  The  Waters  calculated  for  Flooding. — All  sorts  of  water,  are 
not  equally  adapted,  for  the  beneficial  practice  of  flooding.  Pure 
Spring  water  answers  the  purpose  well ;  and  if  it  can  be  used  in 
sufficient  quantities,  will  convert  heath,  and  coarse  herbage,  into 
sweet  pasture  grasses.  Soft,  and  also  muddy  waters,  may  be  em- 
ployed with  advantage.  River  water  is  often  impregnated  with  a 
number  of  useful  ingredients  ;  and  the  quality  of  water  may  some- 
times be  artificially  improved,  by  a  mixture  of  calcareous  and  other 
Substances.  But  waters  that  issue  from  peat-mosses,  or  soils  impreg- 
nated with  pyrites,  or  bituminous  oil,  are  said  to  be  injurious. 

4.  The  Seasons  fittest  for  the  Operation. — The  object  of  watering 
meadows,  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  impioving  waste  lands 
by  means  of  flooding.  In  the  former  case,  water  is  frequently  made 
use  of,  to  nourish  the  grasses  already  produced  by  the  soil.  In  the 
latter,  the  purpose  is,  to  destroy  the  indigenous  plants,  as  they  are 


ON  WARPING  LANti.  1©1 

generally  useless.  Hence,  though  covering  the  soil  with  water  in 
winter  is  of  use,  yet  the  greatest  improvement  must  be  effected  by 
summer  flooding.  Hie  heat  of  the  sun,  combined  with  water, 
produces  a  putrid  fermentation  of  the  vegetable  matter  on  the  surface 
of  the  land  ;  and  when  the  coarse  and  useless  herbage  disappears,a 
rapid  growth  of  succulent  grasses  rises  in  its  places  :  this  is  the  case 
even  in  sterile  mosses. 

5.  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Process. — The  great 
advantage  of  flooding  is,  the  cheapness  of  the  process,  and  the 
facility  with  which  it  is  executed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  only  irt 
very  flat  countries,  that  it  can  be  used  to  any  extent ;  and  if  be 
carried  on  upon  a  great  scale,  covering  great  tracts  of  country  with 
Water,  in  cold,  and  still  more  in  the  warm  seasons  of  the  year,  it 
must  render  the  climate  moist  and  unwholesome.  At  the  same  time, 
where  the  situation  is  favorable,  it  can  hardly  fail  to  be  attended  with 
benefit,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view. 


Sect.  IX. — On  Warping  Land. 

There  is  no  circumstance  which  proves  more  clearly,  the  advaiW 
tages  to  be  derived  from  minute  and  extensive  inquires,  adopting  for 
their  basis,  the  political  divisions  of  the  country,  than  the  discovery 
of  the  process  called  warping  land.  This  most  valuable  species  of 
improvement,  applicable  wherever  tides  in  their  course  keep  alluvial 
matters  in  a  state  of  suspension,  was  confined  to  a  small  district  on 
the  banks  of  the  Humber  ;  and  though  it  had  existed  there  for  about 
50  years,  yet  not  a  syllable  concerning  it,  had  ever  found  its  way 
into  a  page  of  printed  husbandry,  and  it  might  have  remained 
unknown  for  many  years  longer,  had  not  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
undertaken  the  survey  of  the  kingdom,  in  the  course  of  which  it 
was  brought  to  light. 

In  discussing  this  subject,  it  is  proper  to  consider, — The  origin  of 
the  practice  ; — The  nature  of  the  improvement ; — The  mode  of 
carrying  the  plan  into  effect; — The  season  most  suitable  for  the 
purpose ; — The  expese  and  profit ; — The  advantages  attending  it ; — ■ 
The  situations  where  it  may  be  attempted  ; — and,  The  improvements 
and  the  extent  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Practice. — It  is  said,  that  the  person  who  made 
the  first  experiment  of  warping,  was  Mr.  Richard  Jennings  of 
Armin,  near  Howden  in  Yorkshire,  who  tried  it  about  the  year  1743. 
But  it  was  about  the  year  1753,  before  it  was  attempted  by  any 
other  person ;  and  it  remained  in  obscurity,  till  the  beginning  of 
November  1793,  when  it  was  made  public  by  three  eminent  faiu.ers, 
who  had  been  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  to  draw  up  a 


102  ON  WARPING  LAND. 

report  of  the  husbandry  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  As  the 
Board  had  only  met  for  the  first  time,  on  the  4th  day  of  September 
preceding,  the  discovery  of  warping,  in  less  than  two  months,  is  a 
striking  proof,  of  the  zeal  and  activity  of  those,  appointed  to  carry 
on  its  inquiries. 

2.  The  Nature  of  the  Improvement. — The  water  of  the  tides 
that  came  up  the  Trent,  the  Ouze,  the  Dun,  and  other  rivers  which 
empty  themselves  into  the  great  estuary  of  the  H umber,  is  muddy  to 
an  excess  ;  insomuch,  that  in  summer,  if  a  cylindrical  glass,  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  long,  be  filled  with  that  water  when  the  tide 
is  high,  it  will  presently  deposit  an  inch,  and  sometimes  moie,  of 
what  is  called  warp,  or  a  species  of  mud  of  vast  fertility.  This 
substance,  probably  originates  from  a  variety  of  earthy  particles 
washed  down  by  the  rivers  to  their  mouths,  where  they  are  mixed 
with  saline  and  other  matters,  with  which  the  sea  abounds,  and  by 
agitation  are  rendered  so  fine,  as  to  be  suspended,  when  the  water  is 
agitated  by  the  tide.  Some  of  it  was  analysed  by  an  eminent 
chymist,  whose  report  was,  that  it  contained  mucilage,  and  a  very 
minute  portion  of  saline  matter  ;  a  considerable  quantity  of  calca- 
reous earth ;  the  residue  mica  and  sand;  the  latter  in  by  far  the  larger 
quantity,  and  both  in  very  fine  particles. 

3.  Mode  of  carrying  the  Plan  into  effect. — The  plan  of  securing! 
by  embankments,  rich  alluvial  soil,  has  been  practised  for  ages  ;  but 
it  was  reserved  far  modern  times,  to  conduct  mud-laden  waters, 
artificially,  from  the  estuary  or  river  in  which  they  flowed,  for  the 
purpose  of  furnishing  low  and  barren  ground  with  a  sufficient  depth 
of  fertile  soil.  The  mode  of  executing  this  plan,  is  extremely 
simple.  When  the  improvement  is  determined  on,  the  ground 
must  first  be  surrounded  with  banks,  from  three  to  four,  six,  or 
seven  feet  high,  according  to  circumstances,  that  the  water  may  be  of 
a  proper  depth  on  the  land  to  be  warped,  and  to  prevent  the  con- 
tiguous lands,  whether  cultivated  or  not,  from  being  overflowed. 
The  tide  is  then  admitted,  and  detained,  until  the  sediment  in  the 
water  is  deposited,  upon  the  surface.  To  render  the  plan  efficacious, 
the  water  must  be  at  command,  to  keep  it  out,  and  to  let  it  in  ;  so 
that  there  must  be,  not  only  a  cut  or  canal  made  to  join  the  river,  but 
a  sluice  at  the  mouth,  (provincially  dough,)  to  open  or  shut  as 
wanted.  The  effect  is  very  different  from  that  of  irrigation,  for  it 
is  not  the  water  that  produces  the  effect,  but  the  warp  or  mud  ;  and 
the  great  object  is,  not  to  manure,  but  to  create  a  soil. 

4.  The  Season  for  Warping. — June,  July,  and  August,  are 
thought  the  best  months  for  warping,  on  account  of  their  being  int 
general  the  driest  seasons  of  the  year.  Land,  however,  may  be 
warped  in  any  season,  provided  tne  weather  be  dry,  and  the  fresh 
water  in  the  river  very  low.  When  the  season  is  wet,  and  the  river 
full  of  fresh  water,  this  operation  cannot  be  advantageously  executed. 
The  fresh  water,  in  this  case,  stems  the  tide,  and  occasions  a  degree 
of  stagnation,  favorable  to  the  repose  of  the  prepared  matter,  and 
consequently  it  is  not  half  so  muddy,  nor  <o  capable  of  depositing  the 
same  quantity  of  sediment,  as  when  the  tide  flows  in  more  freely, 
and  stirs  up  the  mud.     Warping,  in  spring,  is  attended  with  no •• 


ON  WARPING  LAND 


103 


peculiar  advantage,  more  than  in  summer,  as  there  -can  be  no  crop 
that  year  The  sediment  must  lie  to  soak  and  dry,  before  the  ground 
can  be  cultivated.  It  is  thought,  however,  good  management,  to 
sow  white  clover  the  very  season  after  a  sufficient  quantity  of  warp 
is  deposited,  which  grows  in  the  greatest  profusion 

5.  The  Expense  and  Profit. — It  is  impoesible  to  calculate  the 
expense,  without  ascertaining  the  situation  of  the  land  proposed  to 
be  warped  ;  the  sum  it  will  require  to  embank  the  lands,  to  build  the 
doughs  or  sluices,  to  cut  the  drains,  &c. ;  and  the  quantity  of  land, 
the  same  drains  and  doughs  will  be  sufficient  to  warp ;  for  the 
greater  the  quantity,  the  less  will  be  the  expense  per  acre.  There  are 
great  quantities  of"  land,  however,  which  might  be  warped,  for  so 
small  a  sum,  as  from  3/.  to  4/.  per  acre  ;  an  expense  trifling,  when 
compared  to  the  profit  that  is  derived.  Mr.  Webster,  at  Bankside, 
in  Yorkshire,  purchased  a  farm  of  212  acres,  which  he  warped. 
The  price  was  11/.  per  acre,  and  the  expense  of  warping,  about  12/. 
more,  or  23t.  in  all.  It  was  immediately  rendered  by  warping, 
worth  70/.,  and  in  some  parts  even  100/.  per  acre,  at  which  price 
warped  land  frequently  sells  ;  but  even  at  70/.  the  profit  is  immense. 
Mr.  Webster  warped  some  moorland,  worth  ]s.6d.  per  acre,  (for 
such  land  there  is  in  that  neighborhood.)  and  could  immediately  let 
it  for  5/  per  acre,  for  producing  flax  and  potatoes. 

6.  Advantages  of  the  Process. — The  productiveness  of  land  thus 
improved,  is  very  great.  Thirty-six  bushels  of  wheat ; — 9.0  bushels 
of  beans  ; — from  6  to  10  quarters  of  oats ; — from  40  to  50  stones  of 
flax  ; — and  four  tons  of  hay,  in  two  crops,  are  not  unusual.  It  is 
likewise  peculiarly  well  calculated  for  potatoes,  and  when  in  grass, 
is  the  best  of  pasture  land.  The  land  is  so  enriched,  that  it  will 
admit  of  cropping,  six,  twelve,  and  sometimes  even  sixteen  years, 
previous  to  its  being  laid  down  to  grass,  which,  with  the  exception  of 
white  clover,  cannot  be  hazarded  sooner  than  in  six  years,  the  saline 
particles,  being  at  first  too  powerful  for  other  small  seeds.  The 
rotations  that  may  be  adopted,  are  of  the  most  advantageous  descrip- 
tion, frequently  beans  and  wheat,  with  occasionally  crops  of  pota- 
toes, flax,  or  oats.  Warped  kinds  has  often  been  cropped  for  twelve 
or  thirteen  years,  without  any  manure;  and  whenever  the  soil 
becomes  exhausted,  the  process  is  renewed,  and  the  land  recovers  its 
fertility.  Where  it  possible  to  wear  it  out  by  cropping  or  ill  manage- 
ment, a  few  tides  will  at  any  time  restore  it. 

7  Can  the  Process  be  extended? — Some  doubts  are  entertained, 
whether  this  great  repository  of  highly  prepared  matter  in  the 
Humber,  may  not  be  exhausted.  But  there  seems  no  just  ground  for 
such  apprehension,  when  the  great  extent  of  the  estuary  in  which  it 
is  found,  is  considered,  or  the  vast  tract  of  country,  which,  for  ages, 
has  been  pouring  down  these  valuable  substances  into  its  bosom. 
At  the  same  time,  it  would  be  desirable  to  remove  every  doubt  of 
that  sort,  by  as  accurate  examinations  of  the  banks  or  the  bed  of  the 
river  and  shoals  in  it,  as  is  practicable  in  such  cases.  If  upon  inquiry 
it  should  by  ascertained,  that  the  quantity  of  warp  is  as  immense,  as 
there  is  reason  to  expect,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  a  treasure,  sur- 
passing, perhaps,  any  other  the  country  is  possessed  of,  will  not  be 


104  ON  PLOUGHING. 

neglected.  We  have  the  means  in  our  power,  of  converting  land 
worth  only  a  few  pence,  to  yield  a  rent  of  5/.  per  acre  per  annum ; 
or  in  other  words,  of  transmuting  copper  into  gold.  It  is  well 
known,  what  efforts  were  made  in  Egypt,  to  obtain,  and  to  secure 
the  fertility  of  its  soil,  in  circumstances  not  very  dissimilar  ;  and 
shall  nothing  be  done  by  the  British  government,  to  imitate  the  hus- 
bandry of  the  Nile,  on  the  banks  of  the  Humber  ?  Why  not  make 
it  a  national  concern,  or  at  least  promote  its  success,  by  some  species 
of  public  encouragement,  more  especially  as  the  valuable  substance 
in  question,  (silt  or  warp,)  is  not  confined  to  the  Humber,  but  is  to 
be  met  with  in  many  of  our  other  rivers  and  arms  of  the  sea,  in  as 
great  perfection  and  abunbance. 


Of  Ploughing. 
• 

The  various  benefits  arsing  from  good  tillage,  cannot  be  too  much 
inculcated.  By  tillage,  the  composition  and  consistence  of  the  soil 
is  improved,  and  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  different  species  of 
cultivated  plants. — By  its  assistance,  the  manure,  and  the  seed,  are 
most  advantageously  inserted. — It  is  calculated  to  give  considerable 
relief  from  surface-water,  and  undue  moisture,  by  enabling  the  culti- 
vator to  extend  the  depth,  and  to  adjust  the  surface  of  the  soil. — It 
can  be  employed  to  destroy  almost  all  the  varieties  of  weeds  which 
lurk  in  the  soil,  either  as  roots,  or  as  seeds,  bringing  the  former  to 
the  surface,  and  inducing  the  latter  to  vegetate. — By  the  same  means, 
various  tribes  of  insects,  and  their  larvae,  are  got  rid  of. — And  by 
exposing  the  soil  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  the  decom- 
position of  dead  substances,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  growth  of 
living  plants,  are  promoted. — As  all  these  important  advantages  are 
to  be  obtained  by  the  operations  of  tillage,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  that  skilful  and  experienced  husbandmen,  have,  in  all  ages  and 
countries,  entertained  the  highest  ideas  of  its  utility. 

Indeed  where  tillage  is  imperfect,  there  can  be  no  good  or  complete 
husbandry.  In  one  extensively  cultivated  district,  it  is  stated  as 
more  than  probable,  that  a  third  part  of  the  crops  collectively,  on 
some  of  the  best  soiled  fields  in  it,  is  every  year  lost,  through  the 
want  of  sufficient  tillage ;  nay.  that  perhaps,  from  One-fourth,  to 
one-sixth  part,  of  the  priduce  of  the  arable  lands  of  the  kingdom, 
in  general,  is  lost,  from  the  same  cause.  This  is  a  subject,  therefore, 
that  cannot  be  too  minutely  investigated.  It  is  well  known,  that  the 
horses  of  a  good  ploughman,  suffer  less  from  the  work,  than  those 
intrusted  to  an  awkward  and  unskilful  hand;  and  that  a  material 
difference  will  be  found,  in  the  crop  of  those  ridges  tilled  by  a  bad 
ploughman,  when  compared  to  any  part  of  the  field,  where  the 
operation  has  been  judiciously  performed. 


0N  PLOUGHING.  105 

It  will  be  necessary  here  to  consider,  first,  the  best  mode  of 
ploughing  j  and  then  other  particulars  connected  with  that  important 
operation. 


1.  Mode  of  Ploughing. 

'  The  simplest,  the  most  economical,  and  the  most  perfect  mode  of 
ploughing,  for  general  purposes,  is,  by  a  swing-plough,  with  a  pair 
of  horses,  and  without  a  driver.  In  the  sandy  soils  of  Norfolk,  a 
wheel-plough  will  run  over  more  expeditiously,  with  a  light  furrow- 
slice,  a  greater  extent  of  ground ;  but  in  loamy  and  clayey  soils, 
wheels  must  always  be  an  incumbrance,  and  occasion  additional 
4abor  to  the  horses. 

In  working  with  the  swing-plough,  the  off-side  horse  walks  in  the 
furrow  already  made ;  the  near  side  horse  on  the  untilled  land,  the 
ploughman  in  the  new  furrow.  His  skill  is  proved,  when  there  is  no 
baulking,  or  portion  of  the  land  left  untilled  ;  and  when  the  furrow- 
slice  is  completely  turned  over.  If  the  bottom  of  the  furrows 
remain  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  or  with  pieces  of  land  uncut,  they 
preserve  the  thistles  from  destruction,  and  prevent  the  descent  of 
moisture  from  above,  to  the  open  furrows  left  for  carrying  it  off;  and 
the  land  is  consequently  drenched  with  wetness. 

3.  Maxims  respecting  the  proper  Depth  of  Ploughing. 

1.  The  depth  to  which  land  ought  to  be  ploughed,  must  first  be 
regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  soil.  On  thin  soils,  more  especially 
on  a  rocky  substratum,  the  ploughing  must  necessarily  be  shallow : 
but  when  the  soil,  whether  light  or  strong,  will  admit  of  it,  the 
ploughing  ought  to  be  as  deep  as  a  pair  of  horses  can  accomplish ; 
and  at  some  seasons,  it  is  advatageous,  to  plough  it  even  with  four, 
particularly  at  the  commencement  of  every  fresh  rotation.  2  The 
depth  ought  likewise  to  depend  on  the  means  of  improving  the 
soil; — for  where  the  land  is  poor,  and  the  means  of  enriching  it  is 
scanty,  the  depth  of  ploughing  ought  to  be  in  proportion,  to  the 
quantity  of  manure  which  can  be  obtained  3.  I  Jeep  ploughing  is 
highly  advantageous  upon  every  soil,  excepting  those  where  the 
subsiratum  is  of  an  orchy  sand.  In  fact,  such  sands  are  scarcely 
worthy  of  being  cultivated,  unless  in  situations,  where  much  alluvial 
compost,  or  short  town  manure,  can  be  procured.  4.  It  is  a  general 
rule,  never  to  plough  so  deep  as  to  penetrate  below  the  soil  that  was 
formerly  manured  and  cultivated,  excepting  upon  fallow,  and  then 
only,  when  you  have  plenty  of  lime  or  dung  to  add  to,  and  improve 
the  new  soil.  5.  Many  farmers  recommend,  when  fallowing  land, 
to  go  as  deep  as  possible  with  the  first  furrow  ;  by  which  the  subse- 
quent furrows  will  be  more  easily  done,  and  to  expose  the  soil  to  he 
winter's  frost,  and  to  the  summers  heat:  but  when  the  hind  is 
ploughed  in  spring,  for  a  crop  of  oats,  a  strong  soil  cannot  be 
ploughed  with  safety,  above  five  or  six  inches.     6.  Deep  ploughing 

14- 


106  ON  PLOUGHING. 

is  advisable  on  moorish  cold  soils,  as  it  affords  a  greater  scope  for 
the  roots  of  plants  to  procure  nourishment,  amidst  the  superabun- 
dant moisture  to  subside  from  them,  and  prevents  the  summer 
drought  from  making  an  injurious  impression  on  the  growing  crops : 
for,  on  such  land,  shallow  ploughing,  exposes  vegetation  to  be  starved 
or  drowned  in  wet  weather,  and  to  be  scorched  or  withered  in  dry. 
7".  It  is  unnecessary  to  plough  deeper,  when  the  seed  is  sown,  than 
where  there  is  a  fair  probability  of  the  different  kinds  of  plants 
sending  their  roots  ;  and  as  beans,  clover,  and  turnips,  the  only  tap- 
rooted  kinds  usually  cultivated  in  this  country,  seldom  send  their 
shoots  above  seven  or  eight  inches  down  into  the  soil,  and  the 
culmiferous  species  not  so  far,  it  is  probable,  from  these  circumstan- 
ces, that  from  seven  to  eight  inches  may  be  deep  enough  for  all  the 
purposes  of  ordinary  culture.  Occasionally,  however,  ploughing 
even  ten  inches,  in  the  course  of  a  rotation,  during  the  fallow  process, 
is  advisable. 

Deep  ploughing  is  not  to  be  recommended;  1,  When  lime  or 
marl  has  been  recently  applied,  as  they  have  such  a  tendency  to  sink, 
fro  n  their  weight,  and  the  moisture  they  imbibe.  2.  Where  turnips 
have  been  eaten  off  by  sheep,  on  the  land  where  they  were  grown. 

3.  When  grass  only  two  or  three  years  old,  more  especially  where 
it  has  been  pastured  with  sheep,  is  broken  up ;  because,  owing  to 
the  extreme  condensation  of  the  soil,  by  the  trampling  of  the  sheep, 
a  furrow,  even  of  a  moderate  depth  to  appearance,  will  make  the  . 
plough  penetrate,  below  the  staple  that  had  been  cleared,  by  the 
culture  given  during  the  previous  fallow.  By  this  means,  myriads  of 
the  seeds  of  annual  weeds  are  raised  to  the  surface,  where  they 
vegetate,  and  materially  injure  the  crop  cultivated,  besides  replen- 
ishing the  soil  with  a  fresh  supply  of  their  own  seeds.  In  all  these 
cases,  from  four  to  five  inches  deep  will  be  found  sufficient.     And, 

4.  If  land  is  infested  with  natural  grasses,  which  generally  run 
much  on  the  surface,  the  first  ploughing  should  not  be  deeper  than 
is  necessary  to  turn  up  the  roots  of  the  grasses,  that  they  may  be 
destroyed. 

It  will  now  be  proper  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  advantages 
of  deep  ploughing,  a  practice  which  is  apt  to  get  into  disuse  with 
slovenly  farmers,  and  to  be  too  much  neglected  by  many  who  merit 
a  different  character.  To  prevent  the  continuance  of  so  injurious 
a  system  as  shallow  ploughing,  it  is  advisable,  to  have  one  or  two 
strong  ploughs,  calculated  even  for  four  horses,  by  which  the 
strongest  and  stiffest  land  may  be  cultivated  to  the  proper  depth, 
whenever  it  is  necessary.  This,  indeed,  is  the  practice  of  several 
farmers  of  acknowledged  skill  in  their  profession. 

4.  Advantages  of  deep  Ploughing. 

1.  Bringing  up  new  mould,  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  clover, 
turnips,  beans,  and  potatoes;  and,  indeed,  without  that  advantage, 
these  crops  usually  diminish  in  quantity,  quality,  and  value  2. 
Deep  ploughing  is  likewise  of  great  consequence  to  every  species  of 


ON  PLOUGHING. 


107 


plant,  furnishing  not  only  more  means  of  nourishment  to  their  roots, 
but,  above  all,  by  counteracting  the  injurious  consequences  of  either 
too  wet  or  too  dry  a  season.  This  is  a  most  important  consideration, 
Jov  if  the  season  be  wet,  there  is  a  greater  depth  of  soil  to  absorb  the 
moisture,  so  that  the  plants  are  not  likely  to  have  their  roots 
immersed  in  water;  and  in  a  dry  season,  it  is  still  more  useful,  for  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  cultivated  soil,  there  is  thus  a  reservoir  of 
moisture,  which  is  brought  up  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  by  the 
evaporation  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  occasions.  3.  By  deep 
ploughing,  also,  the  ground  may  be  more  effectually  cleared  of  root 
weeds  of  every  description  ;  in  particular,  it  is  the  best  mode  of 
eradicating  thistles.  4.  By  deep  ploughing,  animal  and  vegetable 
manures,  which  have  such  a  tendency  to  rise  to  the  surface,  are  pro- 
perly covered.  This  cannot  be  done  by  shallow  ploughing,  :*. 
consequence  of  which,  much  of  the  value  of  such  measures  is  lost. 
And,  5.  By  deep  ploughing,  a  heavier  crop  is  raised,  than  can  be 
got^from  a  shallow  furrow.  An  intelligent  farmer,  indeed,  after 
pointing  out  that  deep  ploughing  increases  the  staple  of  the  soil, 
Jkeeps  the  roots  of  the  corn  from  being  injured  by  wetness,  and  also 
enables  the  crop  longer  to  resist  drought,  adds,.  "  I  have  ever  found 
deep  ploughing  attended  with  good  crops,  when  ridges,  shallow 
ploughed,  in  the  same  field,  were  but  indifferent :"  which  seems  a 
decisive  proof  in  favor  of  deep  ploughing.* 

*  A  particular  attention  is  strongly  recommended  to  the  people  of  this 
country,  to  what  the  author  here  says  on  the  subject  of  ploughing  deep., 
Shallow  ploughing  is  a  very  common  fault  with  our  farmers.  Happily,  how- 
ever, a  better  practice  begins,  in  some  places  to  take  place.  To  produce  first 
rate  crops,  a  soil  should  not  only  be  of  a  good  quality,  but  should  also  be  deep. 
But  a  soil  will  rarely,  if  ever,  be  deeper  than  your  plough.  Of  this  any  one 
may  easily  satisfy  himself,  if  he  will  be  at  the  trouble  to  examine,  by  digging 
the  depth  of  the  soil  in  a  field  which  has  been  a  considerable  length  of  time 
under  tillage.  He  will  find  that  the  natural  appearance  of  the  earth  has 
never  been  changed  at  any  greater  depth  than  where  the  plough  has  pene- 
trated.— Nor  is  the  deepening  of  the  soil  the  only  benefit  which  results  from 
ploughing  deep ;  the  soil  is  in  that  way  loosened  to  a  proper  depth,  and  the 
spreading  of  the  fibrous,  as  well  as  other  roots,  of  plants,  is  very  much 
facilitated. — Where  shallow  ploughing  has  always  been  practised,  it  may  not 
be  advisable  to  shift  at  once  to  the  greatest  depth  that  is  to  be  ultimately  fixed 
upon  as  proper,  lest  too  great  a  proportion  of  barren  earth  should  by  such  a 
procedure,  be  turned  up  by  the  plough,  and  injure  the  crops  immediately 
succeeding.  The  change  should  rather  be  brought  about  by  degrees,  and  be 
accelerated  or  retracted  as  circumstances  vary.  Yet  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
that  this  change  will,  in  general,  admit  of  an  earlier  accomplishment,  than 
very  many  seem  to  be  aware.  Amer.  Ed. 


108  ON  HARROWrNGk 


On  Harrowing. 

This  process  is  of  essential  use  in  the  culture  of  arable  lands. 
By  harrowing,  the  soil  is  pulverized  ; — root  weeds  near  the  surface, 
are  torn  out  and  collected,  more  especially  during  the  operation  of 
fallowing; — the  manure  that  has  been  inserted  in  the  soil,  is  more 
thoroughly  mixed  with  it;  and  the  seed  is  more  effectually  covered. 
The  large,  or  what  are  called  the  brake  harrows,  are  of  great  use 
also  in   he  cultivation  of  rough  land. 

To  answer  so  many  various  purposes,  harrows  of  different  dimen- 
sions, weight,  and  strength,  have  been  invented,  suitable  to  the 
strength  and  condition  of  the  soil,  and  adapted  to  the  particular 
purpose  intended  to  be  accomplished. 

There  are  two  modes  of  driving  the  harrows,  either  leading  the 
horses,  or  driving  them  by  whip-reins.  The  latter  ought  to  be 
preferred,  for  as  young  horses  are  frequently  employed  in  harrowing, 
before  they  are  broken  to  regular  work,  the  person  who  leads,  is 
exposed  to  considerable  danger:  whereas,  when  he  directs  the 
horses  by  long  whip-reins,  he  runs  no  risk  and  is  always  at  hand,  to 
remove  any  obstructions  that  may  occur,  from  the  accumulation  of 
weeds,  and  other  extraneous  substances  among  the  tines,  or  by  the 
harrows  riding  on  each  other. 

Harrowing  is  usually  given  in  different  directions ;  first  in  length, 
then  across,  and  finally  in  length,  as  at  first.  An  excess  of  harrow- 
ing is  prejudicial  to  wheat,  it  is  better  for  that  crop  to  have  the  land 
rough  and  cloddy  ;  but  the  process  ought  to  be  effectually  done  for 
barley,  (more  especially  if  accompanied  by  gi  ass-seeds,)  and  for 
turnips. 

The  quantity  done  must  vary  according  to  the  pace  of  the 
horses.  In  Norfolk,  it  is  customary  to  walk  the  horses  against  the 
rise,  if  any,  and  to  trot  them  back  again  in  the  same  place.  The 
quantity  done  in  this  way,  is  about  seven  acres  per  day  In  Scot- 
land, a  man  and  a  pair  of  horses,  will  do  a  single  tine,  as  it  is  called, 
to  the  extent  of  ten  acres,  but  if  a  double  tine,  only  five  acres  per 
day.  The  expense  in  the  one  case  is  \Qid.  and  in  the  second 
Is.  Sd  per  acre. 

As  the  treading  of  horses  is  injurious  to  the  seed  that  has  been 
Sown,  and  to  the  land,  when  in  wet  condition,  attempts  have  been 
made,  to  discover  a  mode  of  harrowing,  which  might  be  performed 
by  horses  walking  in  the  furrows.  But  where  the  ridges  are  bioad, 
such  machines  are  complicated  and  expensive,  though,  with  narrow 
ones,  they  have  succeeded  ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  advantages  which 
narrow  ridges  have  over  broad  ones. 


ON  TRANSPLANTING  CROPS.  109 


Transplanting  Crops. 

This  mode  of  propagating  grain,  though  long  known  in  the 
philosophic  world,  has  not  hitherto  attracted  much  the  attention  of 
the  fanner;  yet  it  is  considered  by  an  intelligent  author,  to  have 
|  a  great  advantage  over  the  drill  husbandry,  as  the  root-scions  can  be 
divided,  and  consequently  their  crowding  each  other  may  be  pre- 
vented ;  and  as  there  is  a  wonderful  inciease  of  produce  from  a 
single  grain.  It  is  in  this  way  that  a  prodigious  multiplicity  of  the 
stems  of  wheat  may  be  effected,  by  transplanting  them,  three  or 
four  times,  in  the  summer,  autumn  and  spring,  after  they  have  been 
sown 

The  effect  of  these  operations,  will  appear  in  a  striking  point  of 
view,  from  an  experiment  tried  by  Mr.  Charles  Miller  of  Cambridge, 
and  recorded  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 

He  sowed  some  wheat  on  the  2d  of  June,  1766,  and  on  the  8th  of 
August,  one  plant  was  taken  up,  separated  into  18  parts,  and 
replanted.  These  plants  were  again  taken  up  and  divided,  between 
the  middle  of  September,  ano  the  middle  of  October,  and  produced 
67  plants,  and  between  the  middle  of  March  and  the  middle  of 
April,  they  produced  500  plants.  The  produce  from  one  grain 
was,  j 

Of  ears, 21,009 

Of  grains,  about 576,804 

Quantity, 3|  pecks. 

»     Weight, 47  lbs.  7  oz. 

Dr.  Darwin  states  a  number  of  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
this  mode  of  transplanting  corn  ;  and  Mr.  Bogle,  who  has  paid 
particular  attention  to  this  subject,  observes,  that  he  has  known 
instances  of  wheat  being  transplanted  in  September,  and  thence 
monthly  to  the  middle  of  May,  which  have  all  answered  extremely 
well.  With  early  varieties,  or  spring  wheat,  it  might  be  executed 
still  later. 

This  mode  of  propagating  grain,  should  be  kept  in  view  on  two 
accounts ;  first,  that  any  valuable  species  of  wheat  might  be  more 
rapidly  increased  ;  and,  secondly,  in  case  of  any  very  great  scarcity , 
transplanting  would  be  by  far  the  most  effectual  means  of  saving 
seed-corn.  Besides,  though  it  may  not  become  a  general  practice, 
yet  in  cases  where  the  ground  is  riot  regularly  covered,  a  farmer 
may  always  find  some  places  in  his  fields,  whence  plants  may  be 
drawn,  without  doing  any  injury ;  and  the  crop  may  thus  be  ren- 
dered, not  only  more  regular  and  uniform,  but  also  more  abundant, 
and  of  a  better  quality,  than  where  the  vacancies  are  filled  up  with 
spring  wheat. 

The  transplanting  of  the  Sweedish  turnip  is  an  excellenPpracticer 
which  has  succeeded  in  Cheshire,  Derbyshire,  and  Herefordshire, 
and  is  found  to  answer,  both  for  cleaning  the  crop  more  perfectly, 


110  ON  REAPING. 

and  raising  a  greater  produce.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  latter  end 
of  April,  in  a  garden.  If  the  weather  be  favorable,  the  turnips 
are  ready  to  be  transplanted  early  in  June  ;  sometimes,  however,  it 
is  protracted  owing  to  the  season,  until  the  middle  or  end  of  July. 
The  land  is  manured,  and  prepared,  as  if  for  drilled  turnips  ;  and  the 
plants  are  set  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  :  the 
greater  the  distance  the  weightier  in  general  is  the  crop  The 
transplanted  Swedes,  are  afterwards  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  common  drilled.  When  transplanted,  it  is  of  use  to  dip  the  m 
roots  in  dung  water.  The  produce  is  from  20  to  about  30  tons  per  " 
Statute  acre. 


On  Reaping. 


It  is  the  opinion  of  experienced  husbandmen,  that  wheat  should 
be  cut  down  some  days  before  it  is  fully  or  dead  ripe.  The  grain 
hardens  well  in  the  sheaf; — the  sample  is  better, — and  there  is 
nothing  lost  in  measure,  by  this  mode  of  management.  The  harvest 
thus  begins  earlier,  and  its  labors  are  more  equally  distributed. 

Barley  ought  likewise  to  be  cut  before  it  is  too  ripe,  other- 
wise the  straw  becomes  brittle,  and  that  occasions  much  loss,  by 
the  heads  breaking  off. 

Though  oats  are  reckoned  a  hardy  grain,  yet  the  more  early 
varieties,  being  liable  to  damage  from  high  winds,  or  from  exposure 
to  much  wet,  ought  to  be  cut  as  soon  as  they  are  nearly  ripe,  in 
order  to  lessen  the  risks  to  which  they  are  exposed.* 

Beans  should  be  cut  down,  as  soon  as  the  eye  has  attained  a  deep 
color,  and  if  the  weather  be  dry,  instantly  made  up  into  sheaves. 
The  straw  will  thus  be  of  triple  value,  and  the  grain  of  superior 
quality. 

So  much  for  the  culture  of  the  crops  before  they  are  cut  down. 
The  instruments  by  which  this  operation  is  effected  are  next  to  be 
considered. 

Various  plans  have  been  devised  for  cutting  down  crops  of  grain  ; 
as  reaping  by  a  sickle,  or  reaping  hook  ;  mowing  by  a  scythe,  and 
bagging.  The  plan  of  cutting  "down  corn  by  machinery,  though  it 
has  made  some  progress,  has  not  yet  been  brought  beyond  the  line 
of  occasional  experiment. 

*  An  experienced  farmer,  Mr.  John  Shirreff,  states,  that  all  sorts  of  grain 
ought  to  be  cut,  whenever  the  straw  immediately  below  the  ear,  is  so  dry, 
that  on  t%isting  it;  no  juice  can  be  expressed ;  for  then  the  grain  cannot 
improve,  as  the  circulation  of  the  juices  to  the  ear  is  stopped.  It  matters  not 
that  the  stalk  below  is  green.  Every  hour  that  the  grain  stands  uncut,  after 
passing  this  stage,  it  is  attended  with  loss. 


ON  REAPIN6. 


in 


1.  Reaping  by  the  Sickle,  or  Reaping-Hoolc. 

For  districts  in  which  a  sufficient  number  of  hands  can  be  pro- 
cured, reaping  by  the  sickle,  or  the  reaping-hook,  are  excellent  modes 
of  cutting  down  the  crop,  if  sufficient  attention  be  paid  to  low 
cutting.  With  careful  reapers,  there  is  very  little  waste  ; — the  heads 
of  the  corn  are  all  put  in  regular  order; — and  the  crop  placed  in  a 
position  favorable  to  threshing,  either  by  the  flail,  or  by  ma- 
chinery. 

The  sickles  are  jagged  on  the  edge  with  teeth  ;  but  reaping-hooks 
are  ground  sharp  and  smooth.  The  former  is  preferred,  as  the 
latter  requires  to  be  so  often  sharpened,  as  to  occasion  some  waste  of 
time.  Besides,  the  teethed  sickle  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  the 
corn  better  together,  than  the  smooth  one ;  and  in  careless  hands, 
Some  of  the  heads.are  cut  off  and  lost,  in  using  the  sharp  reaping- 
hook,  when  it  enters  among  the  crop,  before  the  reaper  has  gathered 
the  corn  with  his  hand. 

Reaping  by  the  sickle  is  j>erformed,  sometimes  by  the  day,  at 
other  times  by  the  acre,  and  sometimes  by  the  harvest  season  ;  but 
the  fairest  mode  is,  by  the  work  that  is  executed.  With  that  view, 
an  agreement  has  been  made,  to  give  sixpence  for  every  twenty-four 
sheaves  of  wheat,  (provincially  a  threave,  hence  the  agreement  is 
called  threaving,)  each  sheaf  measures  thirty-six  inches  in  girth. 
This  is  described  as  the  most  advatageous  mode  of  cutting  down  the 
crop,  for  all  parties.  Under  this  system,  whole  families,  men, 
women,  and  their  grown  up  children,  obtain  employment.  They 
bring  their  provisions  with  them,  remain  the  whole  day  in  the  field  ; 
the  old  teach  the  young  to  cut  down,  every  one  does  something,  every 
one  does  something,  and  they  are  paid  according  to  what  they 
perform.  Much  is  done  with  alacrity  and  spirit,  and  a  great  quantity 
of  corn  is  cut  down  in  a  day,  equally  to  the  advantage  of  the 
reapers,  and  of  the  farmer. 

In  order  to  train  up  reapers,  it  is  a  good  practice,  to  put  four  or' 
five  of  the  most  awkward  or  indolent,  on  a  separate  ridge,  and  to 
^ay  them  in  proportion  to  three  good  ones  on  a  ridge  of  the  'same 
size ;  but  when  they  understand  their  business,  the  fewer  on  a  riojge 
the  better,  for'  the  more  there  are,  the  less  work  will  be  done.  The 
lazy,  and  the  talkative,  endeavor  to  save  themselves,  and  to  keep 
the  others  idle,  and  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  on  whom  the  blame 
ougrft  to  be  laid. 

It  is  a  most  essential  object,  to  cut  the  crop  very  low,  to  prevent 
both  the  waste  of  grain,  and  the  loss  of  straw,  the  almost  unavoid- 
able consequences  of  high  cutting.  The  additional  quantity  of 
grain  gathered  into  barns,  will  pay  the  expense,  and  the  increased 
quantity  of  muck  is  mostly  clear  profit ;  because  the  mowing,  or 
bagging  the  haurn  or  stubbles,  imperfectly  supplies  the  place  of  close 
cutting  the  crop. 

Cutting  corn  when  wet,  ought  to  be  cautiously  avoided,  as,  when 
§ut  up  in  a  dose  sheaf,  it  cannot  get  dry.     In  bad  harvests,  or  when 


112  ON  REAPING. 

corn  is  damp,  the  sheaves  ought  to  be  set  up  single,  loosely  tied  near 
the  ear-fnds  of  the  sttaw,  and  spread  out  circularly  on  their  units, 
or  ends,  to  give  t'nem  a  firm  standing. 

The  sheaves  ought  to  be  of  a  moderate  size,  not  exceeding  nine 
inches  in  diameter,  or  thirty  inches  in  circumference,  in  wet 
seasons,  from  six  to  ^jght  inches  in  diameter  is  quite  enough,  and 
instQad  of  binding  with  two  lengths  of  the  corn  made  into  a  rop'fty 
one  is  sufficient;  nor  ought  the  knee  to  be  applied,  when  the  sheaf  is 
bound,  as  the  air  is  thereby  totally  excluded.  The  binder's  arm  will 
compress  the  sheaf  as  much  as  it  ought  to  be,  provided  the  size  be 
such  as  is  here  recommended. 

It  is  calculated,  that  seven  reapers  will  cut  down  forty-eight 
English  acres  in  four  weeks.  The  expense  of  cutting,  binding,  and 
putting  into  shocks,  varies  from  twelve  shillings,  to  sixteen  shillings 
and  eight-pence  per  English  acre.  Taking  every  expense  into  con- 
sideration, if  the  reaping  process  can  be  duly  executed,  for  fifteen 
shillings  per  English  acre,  the  farmer  has  no  reason  to  be  dissatisfied, 
though  in  many  cases,  twelve  shillings  are  sufficient. 


2.  Mowing  by  the  Scythe. 

This  instrument  is  frequently  made  use  of  for  cutting  oats  and 
barley  ;  and  in  some  districts  of  Kent,  it  is  even  used  for  wheat. 
It  is  either  plain,  or  furnished  with  a  bow,  or  cradle,  to  assist  in 
laying  the  heads  more  regularly  in  one  direction.  The  late  cele- 
brated George  Culey  maintained,  that  this  was  the  completest  mode 
of  cutting  down  the  barley  crop;  that  when  properly  mown,  it 
could  be  neatly  tied  up  in  sheaves,  and  co-tld  be  threshed  without 
difficulty,  by  a  machine.  Whenever  the  crop,  however,  is  much 
lodged,  or  irregularly  broken  down,  or  intewoven  by  squalls  of  wind, 
or  heavy  rains,  the  scythe  cannot  act  with  efficacy,  or  even  with 
safety.  The  use  of  the  scythe,  therefore,  is  only  admissible,  when 
the  corn  stands  urpight,  or  with  a  regular  inclination,  or  -nearly  so, 
in  one  direction. 

A  comparison  has  been  made,  between  the  expense  of  reaping 
by  the  sickle,  or  cutting  down  by  the  scythe.  By  the  sickle,  it 
would  cost  about  twelve  shillings  per  English  acre,  for  barley,  and 
sixteen  shillings  for  wheat.  \Sy  the  scythe,  it  will  be  cut  down  at 
least  two  shillings  cheaper,  and  with  from  two  to  four  additional 
inches  of  straw,  the  manure  from  which,  will  be  worth  from  five 
to  seven  shillings  to  the  farmer. 


3.  Bagging. 

This  is  a  practice,  principally  confined  to  the  counties  of  Middle- 
sex and  Surrey,  where  it  has  been  adopted,  with  a  view  of  securing 
an  increased  quantity  of  straw.  This  it  does,  to  the  a>u  >unt  of 
about  seven  shillings  per  acre,  in  Devonshire,  the  crops  are  chopped 
down,  in  a  similar  manner,  so  as  to  leave  hardly  any  stubble.     It  is 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  ©P  STRAW.  11§ 

done  by  a  toothless  reaping  hook,  of  about  twice  the  weight  of  a 
common  sickle,  which  is  sharpened  as  often  as  is  necessary.  The 
operation  is  performed  by  cutting  the  crop  down  by  a  succession  of 
blows,  made  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  ground.  It  is,  in  fact, 
mowing  with  one  hand,  against  the  standing  corn.  By  bagging,  the 
straw  is  cut  much  closer  to  the  ground,  than  is  generally  done  by 
hand  reaping.  There  is  little  or  no  difference  of  expense  between 
bagging  and  common  sickle  reaping,  whilst  it  is  equally  expeditious. 
Beans  are  usually  bagged  as  well  as  wheat.  The  expense  is  gene- 
rally about  fifteen  shillings  per  acre;  but  it  varies  from  twelve  to 
twenty  shillings,  according  to  the  bulk  and  condition  of  the  crop. 

The  Flemish  mode  of  cutting  grain,  by  a  stick  with  an  iron  hook, 
and  a  short  scythe,  has  been  already  described.  It  is  only  a  small 
deviation  from  bagging,  or  what  in  Herefordshire  is  called  hacking, 
by  which  a  skilful  laborer  can  do  a  statute  acre  per  day. 


Of  the  various  Purposes  to  which  Straw  is  applicable. 

These  may  be  considered  under  the  following  general  heads: 
1.  Feeding  stock  ; — 2.  Litter; — 3.  Thatching; — and,  4.  Miscella- 
neous purposes, 

1.  Feeding  Stock. — In  former  times  this  was  the  great  object  to 
which  straw  was  applied;  almost  every  blade  except  what  was 
employed  in  thatching,  was  devoted  to  that  purpose,  and  scarcely 
any  left  to  litter  the  stalls.  The  husbandry  of  the  celebrated  Baker 
well  was  then  much  commended,  who  used  no  straw  for  litter ;  but 
if  he  had  more  than  his  own  cattle  could  consume,  would  rather  take 
in  those  of  his  neighbours,  and  give  straw  and  attendance  for  nothing, 
than  use  it  for  litter.  No  species  of  dung  was  then  valued,  that  had 
not  passed  through  the  body  of  an  animal ;  and  though,  by  littering, 
more  muck  was  made,  yet  the  dung  produced  from  straw,  when 
eaten,  was  considered  most  profitable.  Bakewell,  however,  was 
convinced,  by  experience,  that  he  had  adopted  an  erroneous  system, 
and  latterly  littered  his  stock  amply. 

But  though  the  plan  of  feeding  stock  solely  upon  straw,  cannot  be 
approved  of,  vet  neither  is  the  opposite  extreme,  that  of  expending  the 
whole  straw,  even  that  of  pulse,  in  litter,  deserving  of  approbation. 
A  moderate  quantity  of  straw  given  to  cattle,  with  turnips,  or  other 
succulent  food,  contributes  much  to  their  health.  The  straw  of 
pulse,  when  properly  harvested,  with  an  adequate  proportion  of 
corn,  may  be  given  with  advantage  to  working  horses,  and  may  save 
more  expensive  articles.  Without  some  article  of  inferior  quality, 
rich  food,  in  too  great  quantities,  would  become  loathsome  and 
injurious.     Dry  food  is  advantageous,  by  its  absorbing  the  fliiids  in 

u 


114  ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW. 

the  stomach,  by  which  that  organ  has  greater  power  to  act  upon 
them ;  and  though  such  food  may  not  be  so  necessary  for  the  cake  of" 
the  nourishment  it  affords,  an  animal,  may  thus.be  enabled,  to  take 
greater  quantities  of  more  nourishing  aliment.  Unless  the  stomach 
and  bowels  be  properly  distended,  digestion  is  but  imperfectly  accom- 
plished, and  the  richest  food,  will  not  nourish  an  animal,  with  equal 
success. 

The  price  of  hay,  indeed,  has  become  so  enormous,  that  it  enfor- 
ces, to  a  certain  degree,  the  consumption  of  straw  ;  nor  can  the 
soiling  system,  so  advantageous  to  the  farmer,  be  carried  to  the  same 
extent,  unless  cattle  and  horses  are  partly  fed  with  straw  during  the 
winter  season.  A  greater  quantity  of  clover,  may  thence  be  em- 
ployed in  summer  soiling,  which  otherwise  must  have  been  made  into 
hay,  and  consumed  in  winter,  instead  of  straw. 

The  properties  of  the  different  kinds  of  straw,  for  feeding  stock, 
shall  next  be  considered. 

Wheat  Sfraw. — On  account  of  its  strength,  this  sort  of  straw  is 
frequently  cut  into  chaff,  and  given  to  horses,  with  their  corn.  The 
chaff  is  likewise  mixed  with  other  food,  in  particular  with  potatoes, 
and  given  to  feeding  and  working  cattle.  Wheat  straw  is  frequently 
employed  for  litter,  and  sometimes  for  thatching. 

Oat  Straw. — This  is  considered  to  be  the  best  fodder,  when  given 
uncut.  *t  was  formerly  excellent  feeding  for  stock,  when  raised  on 
land  full  of  couch,  and  other  natural  grasses  ;  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  fallow,  and  horse-hoed  crops,  very  little  grass,  compara- 
tively, is  now  found  in  the  straw  of  any  kind  of  corn.  In  some 
counties  in  England,  they  give  oats  in  the  straw,  or  corn  and  all,  as 
a  species  of  fodder,  which  they  call  "  cut  meaty  But  that  plan  is 
Condemned  as  slovenly  and  wasteful ;  for  the  proportion  between 
straw  and  corn  being  so  different',  it  is  impossible  for  a  farmer,  to 
do  justice  to  his  cattle  or  horses,  by  a  process  attended  with  so  much 
uncertainty. 

Barley  Straw. — When  this  straw  is  well  harvested,  it  is  much 
relished  by  the  stock,  not  being  tough,  consequently  easily  eaten ; 
and  so  sweet,  that  cattle  are  particularly  found  of  it.  But  it  is 
extremely  diCcuIt  ic>  save  it  in  any  tolerable  order,  more  especially 
with  clover,  and  its  quality  is  much  injured,  when,  instead  of  being 
put  in  sheaves,  it  is  spread  on  the  ground,  for  the  air  tends  to  injure 
every  species  cf  fodder. 

Bean  Straw. — If  well  harvested,  this  straw  forms  a  very  hearty 
and  nutricious  kind  of  food,  for  working  horses  and  cattle,  in  the 
winter  season  ;  but  it  is  said  not  to  answer  so  well  with  carriage  or 
saddle  horses,  as  it  is  apt  to  hurt  their  wind.  As  bean  straw  alone 
is  rather  dry,  a  mixture  of  peas  straw,  particularly  of  white  peas, 
which  is  sweet  and  nourishing,  improves  the  fodder. 

Peas  Straw. — The  haum  of  white  peas,  if  cut  green,  and  dried 
quickly,  in  the  full  vigour  of  its  sap,  is  fodder  of  a  superior  quality, 
and  horses  will  thrive  on  it  nearly  as  well  as  on  hay.  For  sheep, 
this  food  is  so  excellent,  that  on  some  farms,  where  they  make  a  part 
of  the  stock,  peas  are  sown  wholly  on  their  account.  The  straw  of 
$arty  white  peas,  applied  to  sheep,  Mr.  Young  observes,  is  the  most 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW.  115 

saluabte  return  made  by  straw.  Peas  haum,  sometimes  produces 
,a  ton  and  a  half  per  acre,  and  if  well  harvested  will  sell,  according 
to  the  price  of  hay,  at  from  Al.  to  71  10s.  per  acre,  being  often  of 
almost  equal  value  to  the  grain  itself. 

Tare  Straw  or  Hay. — Tares  have  sometimes  produced  from  teri 
ty  twelve  tons  of  green  food,  or  rather  more  than  two  tons  of  hay 
per  acre ;  that  is,  when  they  are  not  suffered  to  stand  for  seed,  but 
the  whole  crop  is  mown,  partly  for  soiling  and  partly  for  hay,  which 
is  of  the  highest  quality.  For  the  purpose  of  hay,  the  crop  should 
be  mown  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  begin  to  fall  off,  or  the  pods  to 
form.  They  require  a  continuance  of  dry  weather  to  be  cured  in 
perfection  ;  but  if  well  harvested,  they  are  worth  from  71.  10$.  to 
12/.  or  even  15/.  per  statute  acre. 

The  rules  respecting  the  consumption  of  straw  in  feeding,  may  be 
considered  as  applicable  to,  I.  Cattle;  2.  Horses;  3.  Sheep;  and, 
4.  To  some  particulars  of  a  general  nature. 

1.  Cattle.— Straw,  of  good  quality,  may,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  feeding  process,  be  given  to  cattle  as  an  economical  mode  of 
fattening  them,  accompanied  by  turnips;  but  in  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  that  process,  hay  is  so  much  superior,  that  it  should,  if 
possible,  be  supplied.  If  straw  be  given  for  only  a  month  or  six 
weeks  in  winter,  it  will  be  a  great  saving,  in  so  expensive  an  article 
as  hay.  In  spring  hay,  from  its  being  so  closely  packed,  and  less 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  retains  its  nutritivejuices 
much  better  than  straw  ;  hence  the  former  has  greatly  the  advantage 
over  the  latter,  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred.  When  cattle  are  fed 
with  distillery  offals,  straw  should  be  given  them  twice  a  day,  with 
the  grains  or  wash ;  for  it  has  been  found  that  without  straw  or  hay, 
cattle  would  not  feed  so  well,  owing  to  their  not  being  able  to  chew 
.die  cud. 

2.  Horses. — It  is  disputed,  whether  working  horses  should  be 
fed  in  winter  with  straw  or  hay,  though  all  parties  admit,  that  during 
the  severe  labor  of  the  spring  months,  hay  is  essential.  But  peas 
and  bean  straw,  certainly  make  good  fodder  for  horses,  early  in  the 
season  ;  though,  if  that  kind  of  straw  be  injured  by  rain,  white  straw 
must  be  given.  With  that  food,  and  two  feeds  of  corn,  horses  will 
not  only  plough  three  quarters  of  an  English  acre  per  day,  but  are 
usually  full  of  health  and  vigour,  when  the  sowing  season  comment 
ces.  In  regard  to  horses  that  are  not  worked,  it  is  a  good  practice^ 
to  throw  the  straw  before  them  in  the  stall,  before  it  is  spread  under 
them,  particularly  if  it  is  sweet  and  fresh.  They  always  find  some- 
thing to  pick  out  of  it;  and  it  makes  a  wholesome  variety  in  their 
diet. 

3.  Sheep. — There  is  no  food  of  which  sheep  are  fonder  than, 
peas  straw ;  and  where  circumstances  are  favorable  to  that  crop, 
peas  ought  to  be  cultivated,  merely  for  the  straw,  from  the  advan- 
tages that  would  thence  be  derived  by  the  sheep  farmer.  Tare 
straw  would  answer  the  same  purpose,  In  Flanders,  the  straw  of 
beans  is  reckoned  excellent  for  sheep,  and  to  produce  superior 
mutton. 


116  ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW. 

4.  General  Rules. — The  value  of  straw  for  feeding,  depend* 
upon  the  soil  and  climate.  In  regard  to  soil,  straw  from  fertile  land, 
is  much  more  nutritive  than  from  land  of  inferior  quality.  As  to 
climate,  it  is  asserted,  that  the  straw  of  wheat,  barley,  and  oats, 
contains  more  sacchrine  matter  in  the  southern,  than  even  in  the 
northern  provinces  of  France,  and  that  the  superior  sweetness  of 
the  one  over  the  other,  may  be  ascertained  by  masticating  it.  In 
good  seasons,  therefore,  it  must  be  more  nutritious  in  this  country, 
than  when  they  are  unfavorable. 

Straw  keeps  much  better  unthreshed,  in  a  large  stack  with  its 
corn,  than  in  a  barn  ;  but  straw,  in  whatever  way  it  is  kept,  more 
especially  white  straw,  looses  part  of  its  value  as  fodder,  after  the 
sharp  dry  breezes  of  the  spring  months  have  set  in.  It  is  seldom 
given  as  fodder,  unless  to  straw-yard  cattle,  after  the  month  of 
March. 

Straw  given  to  stock,  should  be  constantly  made  use  of  as  soon 
after  it  is  threshed  as  possible ;  for  if  exposed  to  the  iufluence  of  the 
atmosphere,  it  becomes  either  musty,  or  too  dry ;  and,  in  that  state, 
cattle  neither  relish,  nor  thrive  on  it  so  well.  If  it  must  be  kept  a 
length  of  time  for  fodder,  it  should  be  bound  in  trusses,  in  which 
stale  it  is  easier  moved,  lies  in  less  room,  and  retains  its  strength 
and  flavor  rather  longer,  than  when  loose ;  or  it  may  be  secured  in  a 
Stack  properly  built,  trod  down  and  covered. 

There  is  certainly  much  nourishment  in  the  heads  of  grain  in 
general,  and  particularly  in  the  awns  of  barley  ;  but  these  require, 
eithei  to  be  steeped  in  cold  water,  or  to  have  boiling  water  poured 
upon  them,  before  they  are  given  to  stock.  Cow-keepers  will  give 
even  a  higher  price  for  the  awns  of  barley,  than  for  the  heads  of 
wheat. 

It  is  a  useful  practice  to  mix  a  portion  of  straw,  particularly  the 
straw  of  oats,  with  the  aftermarth  of  grass,  or  second  crop  of 
clover,  at  the  time  of  stacking  it.  The  straw  absorbs  the  grasses 
and  moisture  as  they  exhale  from  the  hay,  by  which  the  straw 
acquires  juices,  and  a  flavor,  which  are  agreeable  to  cattle  ;  the  hay 
which,  in  other  circumstance,  would  be  spoiled,  is  in  this  manner 
cured,  and  the  mixture  is  excellent  food  for  stock ;  while  the  harves* 
ting  of  the  grass,  or  clover  crop,  is  thereby  accelerated. 

Some  farmers  give  the  best  straw  to  the  young  stock,  and  the 
inferior  sort  to  oxen.  Others,  however,  reverse  the  practice,  on  the 
idea,  that  the  older  the  cattle,  the  better  food  they  require.  Indeed 
the  best  straw  without  the  addition  of  turnips,  is  but  miserable  food 
for  oxen.  The  prudent  method  is,  to  give  the  inferior  straw,  in  the 
'beginning  of  winter,  while  there  is  abundance  of  turnips,  to  be  eaten 
with  it. 

In  the  consumption  of  straw  as  fodder,  the  inferior  sorts  should  be 
first  made  use  of,  and  afterwards  those  of  a  better  kind.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  stock,  when  fed  on  so  coarse  an  article  as  straw,  should 
liave  an  abundant  supply  of  water  at  their  command.       # 

It  is  disputed,  where  straw  is  the  chief  food  for  cattle,  whether  it 
should  be  given  sparingly,  or  in  abundance.  By  the  advocates  for 
tfce  sparing  system,  it  is  maintained,  that  cattle  may  be  satiated  with 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW.       1  IT 

&raw,  if  served  with  it  in  too  great  plenty  ;  and  that  they  do  better, 
when  straw  is  regularly  dealt  out  to  them,  which  is  more  the  case  in 
years  of  scarcity  than  in  plentiful  seasons,  when  it  is  thrown  before 
them  in  profusion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  contended,  that  straw  is 
not  rich  enough  to  produce  satiety,  though,  when  cattle  are  tied  up, 
it  may  be  a  good  plan  to  give  them  but  little  at  a  time,  as  any  change 
must  be  acceptable  to  them.  But  cattle  in  a  straw-yard,  require 
fodder  in  profusion,  that  they  may  pick  out  the  best,  and  leave  what 
they  do  not  relish  for  litter.  More  straw  should  be  given,  when  the 
weather  is  wet,  and  less  when  it  is  dry  ;  and  care  should  b*»  taken,  to 
proportion  the  quantity  of  straw  given,  to  the  number  of  cattle  in 
the  yard,  in  order  that  the  dung  may  be  properly  prepared. 

The  straw  of  some  varieties  of  wheat,  has  a  pith  resembling 
rushes  It  has  not  yet  been  ascertained,  whether  the  straw  of  those 
kinds  of  wheat,  be  in  any  respect  more  valuable,  than  that  of  the 
common  sorts;  but  there  seems  little  doubt,  that  the  straw  of 
autumnal-sown  wheat,  is  more  harsh,  and  less  agreeable  to  cattle, 
than  the  straw  of  wheat  sown  in  the  spring. 

It  is  remarked,  that  the  straw  of  corn  is  weaker  in  countries  where 
the  vegetation  is  rapid,  as  in  Scotland,  than  in  the  southern  counties 
of  England,  where  the  growth  is  slower  and  more  regular ;  and 
that  the  straw  of- barley,  sown  in  the  month  of  March,  or  beginning 
of  April,  grows  shorter  between  the  joints,  and  is  much  stiffer,  than 
the  straw  of  the  same  crops,  sown  in  the  latter  end  of  April,  or  the 
beginning  of  May,  which  latter  crops,  in  wet  seasons,  generally 
fall  down,  while  the  former  stand.  This  is  a  circumstance, 
which  is  favorable  to  the  practice  of  early  sowing,  in  northern 
climates. 

The  ancients  were  accustomed  to  prepare  their  straw  for  feeding' 
stock,  by  keeping  it  for  a  considerable  time,  sprinkled  with  brine ; — 
it  was  then  dried,  rolled  up  in  bundles,  and  given  to  oxen  instead  of 
hay.  The  addition  of  brine,  or  salt,  was  certainly  an  excellent  plan, 
and  by  a  similar  practice,  the  straw  consumed  in  this  country,  where 
it  not  for  the  obnoxious  salt  duties,  might  be  greatly  impioved. 

2.  Litter. — The  use  of  straw,  for  littering  or  bedding  stock,, 
answers  two  purposes  :  1.  It  keeps  the  animals  warm  and  dry,  and 
enables  them  to  repose  in  comfort ;  and,  2.  By  the  same  means, 
straw  is  mixed  with  the  dung  and  urine  of  cattle,  horses,  &c.  and 
converted  into  a  rich  manure. 

All  the  various  sorts  of  straw  answer  the  purposes  of  litter. 
Some  farmers  prefer  the  straw  of  rye,  othe'rs  that  of  wheat,  which 
absorbs  a  great  quantity  of  urine  and  moisture.  The  straw  of  peas 
and  beans,  when  well  broken  by  threshing,  makes  soft  bedding;  but, 
if  well  harvested,  may  be  applied  to  feeding  stock.  Cattle  cannot 
be  advantageously  soiled  on  clover,  and  other  articles,  or  fed  on 
turnips,  without  abundance  of  litter. 

In  the  London  markets,  straw  for  litter  is  drawn  straight  in  hand- 
some trusses ;  and  if  threshed  in  mills,  is  less  saleable,  on  account  of 
its  being  more  bruised,  less  sightly  in  the  truss,  and  less  durable  in 
Tire,  tn  object  of  some  importance,  where  straw  is  so  dear;  at  the 


J  18        ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW. 

same  time,  it  is  probable,  that  the  abvantage  of  a  softer  bed  for  tjfe 
horses,  would  more  than  compensate  for  the  additional  expense.  It 
is  singular,  that  the  ancients  were  accustomed  to  break  straw  upon 
stones,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it  more  easily  mixed  with  dung, 
sooner  dissolved,  and  better  adapted  for  litter ;  an  operation  which 
is  now  so  effectually  done  by  means  of  the  threshing-mill. 

By  some,  littering,  stock  with  straw,  has  been  considered  to  be 
unnecessary  ;  others  contend,  that  all  the  straw  of  a  farm  ought  to  be 
exclusively  appropriated  to  that  purpose,  and  none  of  it  applied  to 
feeding  stock  :  the  truth  seems  to  lie  between  these  extremes. 

In  Arabia,  where  the  finest  horses  in  the  world  are  kept,  .no  straw 
is  used  as  litter.  In  Sweden,  and  in  Russia,  instances  are  quoted,  of 
horses  lying  on  boards,  and  of  cattle  standing  and  lying  on  a  framing 
of  wood  work,  without  any  straw,  or  substitute  for  it  as  bedding. 
Such  plans,  however,  will  not  answer  for  horses,  if  exposed  to  severe 
labor,  as,  in  that  case,  they  require  rest,  in  the  most  advantageous 
manner  in  which  it  can  be  given  them. 

It  may  likewise  be  observed,  that  the  principal  advantage  of  lit- 
tering, with  a  view  to  manure,  arises,  from  the  straw  absorbing  the 
urine,  for  which  purpose  it  is  certainly  well  calculated.  But  wherever 
straw  is  scarce  or  dear,  peat  earth,  or  fine  mould,  might  be  advanta* 
geously  employed  for  the  mere  absorption  of  urine.  Other  substan- 
ces also  might  be  used  for  litter,  as  fern,  shellings  of  oats,  or  small 
shell  sand,  all  of  which  have  been  found  to  answer. 

Straw,  however,  is  the  fittest  article  for  this  purpose,  for,  by  fer- 
mentation, it  is  reduced  into  a  gaseous  state,  and  by  moisture  into  a. 
fluid  state,  and  in  either  case,  its  whole  substance  is  applicable  as 
food  for  plants.  The  more  of  that  article,  therefore,  that  can  be 
converted  into  manure,  consistently  with  the  other  objects  which 
require  the  farmer's  attention,  so  much  the  more  will  his  interest  be 
promoted. 

Mr.  Young  is  of  opinion,  that  it  is  impossible  to  raise  sufficient 
quantities  of  manure,  more  especially  where  soiling  is  practised,  if  any 
straw  be  eaten ;  and  a  number  of  the  best  farmers  in  Norfolk  main- 
tain, that  all  straw  should  be  used  as  litter,  and  trodden  into  dung, 
by  animals  feeding  on  much  better  food,  as  turnips,  hay,  or  oil  cake. 
The  principle  is  a  good  one,  but  it  can  never  be  generally  carried 
into  effect.  All  farms,  as  now  cultivated,  do  not  produce  turnips, 
which' is  the  best,  article  to  use  for  rotting  straw,  from  the  immense 
quantity  of  urine  it  produces  ;  though  there  are  many,  in  which  that 
trop  is  now  unknown,  where  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  that 
valuable  root,  might  be  raised.  In  regard  to  hay,  or  oil  cake,  these 
articles  are  too  expensive,  and  often  too  scarce,  to  make  the  use  of 
them  general ;  and  besides,  such  dry  food,  furnishes  little  moisture 
to  the  dunghill,  without  which  it  cannot  be  properly  fermented 

It  appears  from  the  statements  of  the  several  eminent  farmers, 
that  one  ton  of  straw,  if  properly  manufactured,  will  produce  four 
tons  of  dung;  and  as  an  English  acre  of  grain,  yields  more  than  a 
ton  of  straw,  hence,  on  a  farm  where  300  acres  are  sown  yearly, 
7  00  of  them  may  be  manured  from  its  own  produce,  at  the  rate  of 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  STRAW.  119 

12  tons  per  English  acre,  without  any  extraneous  manure,  cultivated 
under  the  four  course  rotation  of,  1.  Turnips;  2.  Wheat,  or  Barley; 
3.  Clover  ;  and,  4.  Wheat,  or  Oats.  Where  the  clover  is  pastured 
the  second  year,  which  is  an  excellent  system,  even  less  manure  will 
be  found  sufficient,  and  the  produce  of  straw,  will  be  more  abundant, 
during  the  remainder  of  the  course. 

As  1 2  tons  of  dung  per  English  acre,  are  necessary,  which  would 
require  all  the  straw  produced  on  the  farm,  according  to  its  average 
produce,  means  ought  to  be  devised,  without  the  aid  of  any  extrane- 
ous manures,  to  make  up  the  deficiency,  where  a  part  of  the  straw  is 
applied  to  the  feeding  of  stock.  The  greatest  care  ought,  therefore, 
to  betaken,  that  the  crop-be  cut  as  low  as  possible  ;  while  by  the  aid 
of  mould  or  peat  earth,'  much  urine  may  be  absorbed,  that  would 
otherwise  be  lost.  In  this  way  stock  are  maintained  with  economy, 
and  the  soil  kept  in  a  fertile  state,  from  its  own  recources. 

3.  Thatching. — For  many  ages  straw  was  the  common  material 
for  roofing  farm  buildings  and  cottages,  and  was  formerly  made  use 
of  even  in  towns  ;  but  the  risk  of  fire,  (to  which  whole  villages  have 
"fallen  a  sacrifice  from  a  single  spark) ; — the  loss  sustained  by  vermin, 
who  shelter  themselves  in  the  straw; — the  expense  of  additional 
rates  of  insurance  on  thatched  buildings,  from  Is.  to  even  3s.  per 
cent,  in  cases  where  they  were  considered  to  be  doubly  hazardous; — ■ 
the  increased  difficulties  attending  making  a-  roof  with  straw,  that 
was  threshed  by  .mills,  and  in  a  broken  state  ; — the  practice  of 
covering  buildings  with  slate  or  tiles  ; — and  the  greater  demand  for 
manure,  in  consequence  of  the  improved  state  of  agriculture,  have 
all  contributed  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  straw  used  in  thatching. 
This  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  agriculture,  as  little  straw  can 
be  spared  from  litter,  even  for  feeding  stock,  and  still  less  for  the 
covering  of  houses.  On  this  subject,  Mr.  Young  very  justly  observes, 
that  thatched  roofs,  lessen  the  quantity  of  dung  on  a  farm,  to  such 
an  extent,  that  they  ought  to  be  universall  prohibited*  Fen  reeds, 
and  in  mountainous  districts,  heath  may  be  used,  where  slates  or  tiles 
cannot  be  had  on  reasonable  terms. 

In  the  country  of  Somerset,  wheat  is  seldom  threshed  with  the 
straw,  but  the  ears  are  cut  off,  and  the  straws  which  are  bound  in 
sheaves,  tied  very  tight,  are  u:  ed  for  thatching. 

In  the  more  northern  districts  of  Scotland,  they  mix  straw  with 
clay,  and  thus  make  a  plastered  roof,  which  consumes  but  little 
straw,  and  is  not  liable  to  take  fire.  It  requires,  however,  strong 
rafters,  &c.  on  which  more  durable  materials  might  be  placed.  V/alls 
of  clay,  mixed  witrrstraw  are  not  usual  in  several  districts  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  for  gardens,  cottages,  and  even  farm  houses. 

4.  Miscellaneous  uses  of  straw. — There  are  few  articles  which 
are  applied  to  a  greater  variety  of  purposes  than  straw.  Besides 
the  uses  above  mentioned,  it  is  employed  for  covering  hay  and  corn 
stacks  ; — twisted  into  ropes,  for  draining  ; — mixed  with  sea-weed  in 
a  compost; — burnt  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  potash  ; — manufac- 
tured into  paper  : — used  in  bottoming  of  chairs, — stuffing  collars  for 
working  horses, — and  beds  for  the  lower  orders ; — packing  glass, 


120 


ON  KITCHEN  GARDENS. 


china,  and  earthenware ; — bean  straw  is  likewise  used  as  a  bottom 
for  roads  ; — arid  the  straw  of  grain,  and  of  wheat  in  particular,  in 
the  manufacture  of  hats,  bonnets,  trinkets,  and  various  ornaments, 
by  which  numbers,  who  might  otherwise  find  it  difficult  to  subsist, 
are  furnished  with  the  means  of  employment. 


Private  Kitchen  Gardens. 

To  those  who  reside  in  the  country,  a  well  cultivated  kitchen 
garden  is  a  most  essential  object,  with  a  view  to  health,  comfort, 
and  economy. 

It  requires  attention  to  the  following  particulars:  1.  Soil;  2. 
Trenching;  3.  Manures ;  4.  Vermin;  5.  Rotations;  and  6. 
Articles  to  be  raised. 

1.  It  is  found  that  a  sandy  loam,  is  not  only  the  best  soil  for  a 
kitchen  garden,  but  that  the  smaller  the  grains  of  sand,  of  which 
the  soil  is  composed,  the  better,  as  by  that  means  it  is  capable  of 
retaining  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture,  in  dry  seasons.  A  free 
marl  is  likewise  well  calculated  for  garden  culture.  The  addition  of 
a  moderate  quantity  of  clay,  and  of  oxide  of  iron,  is  of  much  use  in 
promoting  fertility.  It  is  fortunate,  however,  when  a  garden  contains 
a  variety  of  soils;  as  some  vegetables  require  a  strong  and  heavy 
soil,  and  do  not  thrive  in  a  light  one.  Where  the  subsoil  is  wet, 
draining  is  indispensable. 

2.  Preparing  the  soil,  and  trenching  it  to  the  proper  depth,  is  not 
always  sufficiently  attended  to  in  garden  culture.  The  soil  ought  to 
be  from  one  foot  and  a  half,  to  two  feet  and  a  half  deep,  particularly 
where  tap-rooted  vegetables  are  cultivated.  The  roots  can  thus, 
with  greater  facility,  extend  their  fibres,  in  all  directions,  in  search 
of  vegetable  nourishment,  and  a  reservoir  is  provided,  for  any 
superabundant  moisture,  which  may  be  occasioned  by  heavy  rains, 
where  it  is  retained  till  wanted. 

3.  The  species  of  manure  must  depend  upon  the  soil.  Rotten 
dung  is  preferred  by  gardeners,  as,  in  the  course  of  fermentation,  the 
seeds  of  weeds,  and  the  larvae  of  insects  are  destroyed  ;  and  the 
more  putrid  the  dung,  the  greater  effect  it  has  in  promoting  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  plant.  Sea-weed,  where  it  can  be  procured,  is 
an  excellent  manure  for  garden  crops,  in  particular  for  onions. 
Soapers'  waste  used  in  moderation  by  itself,  or  in  a  compost  with 
earth,  is  an  excellent  manure  for  garden  soils.  This  substance,  not 
only  destroys  insects  and  their  larvae,  but,  consisting  principally  of 
calcareous  matter,  every  species  of  vegetables  is  greatly  improved  in 
quality,  where  it  is  applied  Cowdung,  mixed  with  water,  is  a  good 
manure,  when  frequently  applied  in  a  liquid  state. 


ON  LIVE  STOCK.  121 

4.  Slugs  and  snails  are  very  destructive  in  a  garden.  Slacked 
lime,  or  sifted  coal-ashes,  spread  on  the  surface,  or  laid  in  rows,  in 
various  places,  are  useful  in  destroying  them. 

5.  Skilful  gardeners  recommend  attention  to  a  rotation  of  crops, 
and  occasionally  fallow  portions  of  their  gardens,  or  lay  them  down 
with  clover,  which  seldom  fails  to  restore  them  to  their  former  fer- 
tility. The  most  experienced  horticulturists  are  now  agreed,  that 
even  the  currant,  gooseberry,  and  raspberry  quarters  should  be 
changed  every  seven  or  eight  years,  and  the  strawberry  ground 
every  four  or  five  years.  The  chief  market  gardeners  near  Edin- 
burgh, think  it  essential  to  adopt  a  certain  rotation  of  principal 
crops,  to  be  afterwards  stated. 

6  With  respect  to  the  articles  cultivated  in  kitchen  gardens, 
there  are  above  eighty  different  sorts,  raised  even  in  Scotland,  not- 
withstanding its  inferiority  of  climate  ;  the  mere  enumeration  of 
which,  with  some  remarks  on  their  nature  and  quality,  and  mode  of 
culture,  would  fill  several  pages,  and  must  therefore  be  omitted  in  so 
limited  a  work. 


I.  On  the  most  desirable  Properties  of  Live  Stock. 

Under  the  general  term  live  stocJc,  are  comprehended,  the  various 
Sorts  of  domesticated  animals,  which  are  employed  by  man  as  instru- 
ments, for  converting  to  his  use,  either  by  labor  or  otherwise,  those 
productions  of  the  soil,  which  are  not  immediately  applicable,  to 
supply  his  wants,  in  their  natural  state.  Bakewell  expressed  the 
same  idea,  when  he  described  live  stock  as  machines,  for  convert- 
ing herbage,  and  other  food  for  animals,  into  money.  But  mo- 
ney, in  fact,  is  only  the  sign  of  wealth,  while  live  stock  are  real 
riches. 

The  most  desirable  properties  of  live  stock  in  general,  may  be 
considered  under  the  following  heads  :  1.  Size;  2.  Form;  3.  Early 
maturity;  4.  Hardiness  of  constitution  ;  and,  5.  Prolific  quality; 
to  which  may  be  added,  with  regard  to  those  sorts  which  are  destined 
for  food ;  6.  A  tendency  to  grow ;  7.  A  disposition  to  fatten ;  and, 
8.  Lightness  of  offal. 

1.  Size. — Before  the  improvements  introduced  by  Bakewell,  the 
value  of  an  animal  was  entirely  judged  of  by  its  bulk ;  and  if  a  great 
size  could  be  obtained,  more  regard  was  paid,  to  the  price  the  animal 
ultimately  fetched,  than  to  the  cost  of  its  food.  Of  late,  since 
breeders  began  to  calculate  with  more  precision,  small,  or  moderate 
sized  animals,  have  been  generally  preferred,  for  the  following 
reasons : 

16 


122  ON  LIVE  STOCK. 

1.  Small-sized  animals  are  more  easily  kept;  they  thrive  0® 
shorter  herbage,  and  are  thence  more  profitable,  2.  Their  meat  is 
finer  grained,  produces  richer  gravy,  has  a  superior  flavor,  and  is 
commonly  more  nicely  marbled,  or  veined  with  fat.  2.  Large 
animals  are  not  so  well  calculated  for  general  consumption,  as  the 
moderate  sized,  particularly  in  hot  weather.  4.  Large  animals 
poach  pastures  more  than  small  ones.  5.  They  are  not  so  active, 
require  more  rest-  and  collect  their  food  with  more  labour.  6.  Small 
cows,  of  the  true  dairy  breeds,  give  proportionately  more  milk  than 
large  ones.  7-  Small  cattle  may  be  fattened  on  grass  solely,  of  even 
moderate  quality  ;  whereas  the  large,  require  the  richest  pastures,  or 
to  be  stall  fed,  the  expense  of  which  exhausts  the  profit  of  the 
farmer.  8.  It  is  much  easier  to  procure  well-shaped,  and  kindly- 
feeding  stock  of  a  small  size,  than  of  a  large  one.  9-  Small-sized 
cattle,  may  be  kept  by  many  persons,  who  cannot  afford,  either  to 
purchase,  or  to  maintain  large  ones  ;  and  by  whom  the  loss,  if  any 
accident  shall  happen  to  them,  can  be  more  easily  borne,  10.  The 
small-sized  sell  better ; — for  a  butcher  will  give  more  money  for  two 
oxen  of  twelve  stone  each  per  quarter,  than  for  one  of  twenty-four 
stone. 

In  favor  of  the  large-sized,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  contended, 
1.  That  without  debating  whether  from  their  birth,  till  they  are 
Slaughtered,  the  large  or  the  small  one  eats  most  for  its  size,  yet  on 
the  whole,  the  large  one,  will  pay  the  grazier  or  farmer  who  fattens 
him,  as  well  for  its  food.  2.  That  though  some  large  oxen  are 
coarse  grained,  yet,  where  attention  is  paid  to  the  breed,  (as  is  the 
case  with  the  Herefordshire,)  the  large  ox  is  as  delicate  food  as  the 
small  one  3.  That  if  the  small-sized  are  better  calculated  for  the 
consumption  of  private  families,  of  villages,  or  of  small  towns,  yet 
that  large  cattle,  are  fitter  for  the  markets  of  great  towns,  and  in 
particular  of  the  metropolis.  4.  That  were  the  flesh  of  the  smalL- 
sjsed  ox,  better,  when  fresh,  yet  the  meat  of  the  large-sized  is  un- 
questionably more  calculated  for  salting,  a  most  essential  object  in  a 
maritime  and  commercial  country,  for  the  thicker  the  beef,  the  better 
it  will  retain  its  juices  when  salted,  and  the  fitter  it  is  for  long 
voyages.  5.  That  the  hide  of  the  large  ox  is  of  very  great  conse- 
quence in  various  manufactures.  6.  That  where  the  pastures  are 
good,  cattle  and  sheep  will  increase  in  size,  without  any  particular 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  breeder ;  large  animals  are  naturally 
therefore.the  proper  stock  for  such  pastures.  7.  That  the  art  af 
fattening  cattle,  and  even  sheep,  with  oil-cake,  being  much  improved 
and  extended,  the  advantage  of  that  practice  would  be  of  less  conse- 
quence, unless  large  oxen  were  bred,  as  small  oxen  can  be  fattened 
with  £rass  and  turnips,  as  well  as  oil-cake  ;  and  lastly,  that  large  oxen 
are  better  calculated  for  working  than  small  ones,  two  large  oxen 
being  equal  to  four  small  ones  in  the  plough  or  the  cart. 

Such  are  the  arguments  generally  made  use  of  on  both  sides  of  the 
question  ;  from  which  it  appears,  that  much  must  depend  upon  pas- 
tures. iaste,  mode  of  consumption,  markets,  &c.  and  that  both  sizes 
have  their  advantages.  The  intelligent  breeder,  however,  (unless 
his  pastures  ar**  of  a  nature  peculiarly  forcing,)  will  naturally  prefer 
the  moderate  sized,  in  the  stock  he  rears. 


ON  LIVE  STOCK. 


m 


The  late  Mr.  Davis  of  Longleat,  one  of  the  ablest  agriculturists 
this  country  has  produced,  has  given  some  useful  observations  on  the 
subject  of  size.  He  laments  that  the  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  improve  the  breeds  of  cows,  horses,  and  sheep,  have  pro- 
ceeded too  much  upon  the  principle  of  enlarging  the  size  of  the 
animal;  whereas,  in  general,  the  only  real  improvement  has  been 
made  in  the  pig,  and  that  was,  by  reducing  its  size,  and  introducing  a 
kind  that  will  live  hardier,  and  come  to  greater  perfection  at  an  earlier 
age,  His  objections  indeed  to  the  using  of  large-  heavy-heel'd  black 
horses,  in  preference  to  the  smart,  the  active,  and  the  really  useful 
breeds,  merit  particular  attention.  In  some  situations,  the  steepness 
of  the  hills,  and  the  heaviness  of  the  soil,  require  more  than  ordinary 
strength  ;  but  in  such  cases,  he  maintains,  that  it  would  be  better  to 
add  to  the  number  of  horses,  than  to  increase  their  size.  Great 
horses  not  only  cost  proportionable  more  at  first  than  small  ones, 
but  require  much  more  food,  and  of  a  better  quality,  to  keep  up 
their  flesh.  The  Wiltshire  carter  also,  takes  a  pride  in  keeping 
them  as  fat  as  possible ;  and  their  food,  (which  is  generally  barley^) 
is  given  without  stint.  In  many  instances,  indeed,  the  expense  of 
keeping  a  fine  team  of  horses,  amounts  to  nearly  the  rent  of  the  farm 
on  which  they  are  worked.  They  are  purchased  young  when  colts, 
and  sold  at  five  or  six  years  of  age,  for  the  London  drays  and  wa- 
gons. The  expense  of  their  maintenance  is  very  seldom  counterba^ 
lanced  by  the  difference  of  price,  more  especially  as  such  horses  are 
gently  worked  when  young,  that  they  may  attain  their  full  size  and 
beauty.  In  ploughing  light  soils,  the  strength  of  a  dray  horse  is  not 
wanted ;  and  in  heavy  soils,  the  weight  of  the  animal  does  injury  to 
the  land. 

2  Form. — Though  it  is  extremely  desirable,  to  bring  the  shape 
of  cattle  to  as  much  perfection  as  possible,  yet  profit  and  utility 
ought  not  to  be  sacrificed  for  mere  beauty,  which  may  please  the 
eye,  but  will  not  fill  the  pocket ;  and  which,  depending  much  upon 
caprice,  must  be  often  changing. 

In  regard  to  form,  the  most  experienced  breeders  seem  to  concur 
in  the  following  particulars  :  1.  That  the  form  or  shape  should  be 
compact,  so  that  no  part  of  the  animal  should  be  disproportioned  to 
the  other ;  and  the  whole  distinguished  by  a  general  fulness  and 
rotundity  of  shape  ;  2.  That  the  chest  should  be  broad  ;  for  no 
animal  whose  chest  is  narrow,  can  easily  be  made  fat ;  3.  That  the 
carcass  should  be  deep  and  straight ;  4.  That  the  belly  should  be 
of  a  moderate  size  ;  for  when  it  is  more  capacious  than  common,  in 
young  animals,  it  shews  a  diseased  state,  and  in  older  ones,  it  is 
considered  a  proof,  that  the  animal  will  not  return  in  flesh,  in  milk, 
or  in  labor,  the  value  of  the  extra  quantity  of  food  which  it  consumes  ; 
and,  5.  That  the  head,  the  bones,  and  other  parts  of  inferior  value, 
should  be  as  small  as  is  consistent  with  strength,  and  with  the  other 
properties  which  the  animal  ought  to  possess  The  form  must  like- 
wise be  such,  as  to  contain  the  greatest  possible  proportion  of  the 
finer,  compared  to  the  coarsjr  and  less  valuable  parts  of  the  animal. 
This,  by  selection,  may  be  attained ;  and  thus  the  wishes  of  the 
consumer  may  be  gratified. 


124  ON  LIVE  STOCK. 

The  form  of  animals,  has  fortunately  attracted  the  attention  of  an 
eminent  surgeon,  :  Henry  dine,'  Lsq.  of  London,;  the  substance 
of  whose  doctrines  are  :  1.  That  the  external  form  is  only  an  indi- 
cation of  the  internal  structure;  2.  That  the  iungs  of  an  animal  is 
the  first  object  to  be  attended  tc,  for  on  their  size  and  soundness,  the 
health  and  strength  of  e:i  animal  principally  depend  ;  3.  That  the 
external  indication  of  ihe  rize  of  tL-e  !u:  gs,  are  the  form  and  size 
of  the  chest,  and  its  breadth  is  particular;  4.  That  the  head  should 
be  small,  as  by  this  the  birth  v:  facilitated  ;— as  it  affords  other  advan- 
tages in  feeding,  &c.-^  r'c.d  cs  it  generally  indicates  that  the  animal  is 
of  a  good  br^ed ;  5.  That  the  length  of  the  neck  should  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  at  tLe  rnimak  that  it  may  collect  its  food  with 
ease ;  and,  £.  That  the  muscles  and  tendons  should  be  large,  by 
which  an  an -ma!  is  enabled  to  travel  with  greater  facility. 

It  was  formerly  the  practice,  to  estimate  the  value  of  animals  by 
the  size  of  their  bores.  A  larg*  bone  was  considered  to  be  a  great 
merit;  and  a  fine  honed  animal,  always  implied  great  size.  It  is 
now  known  that  ti  is  doctrine  was  carried  too  far.  The  strength  of 
an  animal  coes  not  depend  upon  the  bones,  but  on  the  muscles ;  and 
when  the  bones  are  disproportion? bly  large,  it  indicates,  in  Mr. 
Cline's  opinion,  an  i  nperiection  in  the  organs  of  nutrition.  Bakewell 
strongly  insisted  on  the  advantage  of  small  bones  ;  and  the  celebrated 
John  Hunter  declared,  tljat  small  Lones  were  generally  attended  with 
corpulence,  in  all  the  various  subjects  he  had  an  opportunity  of 
examining.  A  small  bone,  however,  being  heavier  and  more  sub- 
stantial, rcnuires  as  much  nourishment  as  a  hollow  one,  with  a  larger 
circumference. 

3.  Early  Maturity  — Arriving  soon  at  perfection,  is  a  material 
object  for  the  breeder,  as  his  profit  must,  in  a  great  measure,  depend 
upon  it.  Whe .  e  animals,  bred  for  the  carcass  merely,  become  fat  at 
an  early  age.  they  no*  only  return  sooner  the  price  of  their  food, 
with  prcJit  to  the  feeder,  but  in  general  also,  a  greater  value  for  their 
consumption  than  slow  feeding  animals.  This  desirable  property 
greatly  depeds  on  a  mild  and  docile  disposition ;  and  as  this  docility 
of  temper  is  much  owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  animal  is 
brought  up,  attention  to  inure  them  early  to  be  familiar,  cannot  be 
too  much  recommended  A  tame  breed  also  has  other  advantages. 
It  is  not  so  apt  to  injure  fences,  cr  to  break  into  adjacent  fields ; 
consequently  it  is  less  liable  to  accidents,  and  can  be  reared,  sup- 
ported, and  fattened  at  less  expense.  The  property  of  early  maturity, 
in  a  populous  country,  where  the  consumption  of  meat  is  great,  is 
extremely  beneficial- to  tbfe  public,  as  it  evidently  tends  to  furnish 
greater  supplies  to  the  market ;  and  tLis  propensity  to  fatten  at  an 
early  age,  is  a  sure  proof,  tl.at  an  animal  will  fatten  speedily  at  any- 
other  period  of  his  life. 

4.  Hardiness  of  Constitution. — In  the  wilder  and  bleaker  parts 
of  a  country,  the  possession  of  a  heardy  and  healthy  constitution,  is 
a  most  valuable  property  in  stock.  Where  the  surface  is  barren,  and 
the  climate  rigorous,  it  is  essential  that  the  stock  bred  and  maintained 
there  should  be  able  to  endure  the  severities  and  vicissitudes  of  the 
weather,    as    well  as  scarcity  of  food,  hard  work,  or  any  other 


ON  LIVE   STOCK.  125 

circumstance  in  its  treatment,  that  might  subject  a  more  delicate  breed 
to  injury.  In  this  respect,  different  kinds  of  stock  greatly  vary  ;  and 
it  is  a  matter  of  much  consequence,  to  select,  for  different  situations, 
cattle  with  constitutions  suitable  to  the  place  where  they  are  to  be 
kept  It  is  a  popular  belief,  that  dark  colors  are  indications  of 
hardiness.  In  mountain  breeds  of  cattle,  a  rough  pile  is  reckoned 
a  desirable  property,  more  especially  when  they  are  to  be  kept  out 
all  winter.  It  enables  them  to  face  the  storm,  instead  of  shrinking 
from  it.  Hardy  breeds  are  exempted  from  various  diseases,  as 
having  yellow  fat,  also  being  lyery,  or  blackfieshed,  so  injurious  to 
stock. 

5.  Prolific  Quality. — By  this  property  is  meant,  that  the  females 
of  a  breed,  both  bear  more  frequently  than  usual,  and  also  have 
frequently  more  than  one  at  a  birth.  This  property  runs  more 
strikingly  in  sub-varieties,  or  individual  families  ;  but  by  selection, 
might  probably  be  extended  to  the  whole  breed,  in  the  more  general 
acceptation  of  that  work  This  quality  is  partly  owing,  to  some- 
thing in  the  habits  of  animals,  and  partly  to  their  previous  good  or 
bad  treatment.  In  breeding,  not  only  the  numbers,  but  the  sex  of 
the  offspring,  in  many  cases,  seem  to  depend  upon  the  female  parent. 
Two  cows  produced  fourteen  females  each  in  fifteen  years,  though 
the  bull  was  changed  every  year.  It  is  singular  that  when  they 
produced  a  bull  calf,  it  was  in  the  same  year.  Under  similar  circum- 
stances, a  great  number  of  males  have  been  produced  by  the  same 
cow  in  succession,  but  not  to  the  same  extent. 

6.  A  tendency  to  grow. — Among  the  qualities  for  which  thorough- 
bred cattle  and  sheep  are  distinguished,  that  of  being  good  growers, 
and  having  a  good  length  of  frame,  is  not  the  least  essential.  The 
meaning  of  which  is,  that  the  animal  should  not  only  be  of  a  strong 
and  healthy  constitution,  but  while  it  gains  flesh  and  condition, 
should  grow  to  a  proper  size.  As  specimens  of  rapid  growth,  a 
steer  of  three  years  old,  when  well  fed,  will  weigh  from  80  to  90 
stone,  14lb.  to  the  stone ;  and  a  two  year  old  Leicester  wedder,  from 
25  to  28lb  per  quarter,  immediately  after  his  second  fleece  is  taken 
from  him.  Animals  who  have  the  property  of  growing,  are  usually 
straight  in  their  back  and  belly ;  their  shoulders  well  thrown  back, 
and  their  belly  rather  light  than  otherwise.  At  the  same  time  a 
gauntness  and  paucity  of  intestines  should  be  guarded  against,  as  a 
most  material  defect,  indicating  a  very  unthrifty  animal.  Being 
too  light  of  bone,  as  it  is  termed,  is  also  a  great  fault.  A  good 
grower,  or  hardy  animal,  has  always  a  middling  sized  bone.  A  bull 
distinguished  for  getting  good  growers,  is  inestimable  ;  but  one  whose 
progeny  takes  an  unnatural  or  gigantic  size,  ought  to  be  avoided. 

9-  A  disjjosition  to  Fatten. —  This  is  a  great  object  in  animals 
destined  for  the  shambles.  Some  animals  possess  this  property 
during  the  whole  progress  of  their  lives,  while  in  others,  it  only 
takes  place  at  a  more  advanced  period,  when  they  have  attained 
their  full  growth,  and  are  furnished  at  the  same  time  with  a  suitable 
supply  of  food.  There  are  in  this  respect  other  distinctions  :  1. 
Many  kinds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  which  have  been  bred  in  hilly 
countries,  will  becoaie  fat  on  lowland  pastures,  on  which  the  more 


126  ON  LIVE  STOCK. 

refined  breeds  would  barely  live ;  and,  2.  Some  animals  take  on 
fat  very  quickly,  when  the  proper  food  has  been  supplied,  and  some 
individuals  have  been  found,  even  in  the  same  breed,  who  have  in  a 
given  time,  consumed  the  least  proportional  weight,  of  the  same 
kind  of  food,  yet  have  become  fat  at  the  quickest  rate.  Even  in  the 
human  race,  with  little  food,  some  will  grow  immoderately  corpulent. 
It  is  probable  owing  to  internal  conformation,  that  this  property  of 
rapid  fattening  is  derived. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  fattening  cattle  and  sheep, 
at  least  to  the  extent  frequently  practised  at  present,  is  a  point  that 
has  of  late  attracted  much  public  attention. 

But  any  controversy  on  that  subject,  can  only  arise  from  want 
of  proper  discrimination.  Fat  meat  is  unquestionably  more  nour- 
ishing than  lean,  yet  to  digest  this  oily  matter,  they  are  required,  on 
account  of  its  difficult  solubility,  a  good  bile,  much  saliva,  and  a 
vigorous  stomach  ;  consequently  none,  excepting  those  who  are  in 
the  most  vigorous  state  of  health,  or  who  are  employed  in  hard 
labor,  can  properly  digest  it.  Though  fat  meat,  however,  is  unfit  for 
general  consumption,  yet  experiments  in  the  art  of  fattening  animals, 
are  likely  to  promote  useful  discoveries  ;  and  though,  in  the  course 
of  trying  a  number  of  experiments,  errors  and  excesses  may  be 
committed,  yet  on  the  whole,  advantage  may  be  derived  from  the 
knowledge  thus  to  be  obtained.  As  the  bone  also  gains  but  little  in 
the  fatting  animal,  and  the  other  offal  becomes  proportionably  less, 
as  the  animal  becomes  more  fat,  the  public  has  not  sustained  much 
loss  by  over-fatted-animals.  Few  animals  are  fatted  at  more 
expense  to  the  farmer  than  the  hog,  yet  to  kill  it  when  lean,  is 
exceedingly  bad  economy.  An  ox  or  cow,  though  the  little  flesh  it 
has  may  be  of  good  quality,  yet  presents,  when  lean,  little  but  skin 
and  bone;  and  if  slaughtered  in  that  state,  would  neither  indemnify 
the  owner  for  the  expense  of  breeding  and  maintaining  it,  nor  benefit 
the  public.  A  coarse  and  heavy-fleshed  ox,  which  would  require  a 
very  long  time,  and  much  good  food  to  fatten,  may  be  slaughtered 
with  most  advantage,  while  rather  lean.  It  is  not  however,  so  much 
the  extent  of  fat,  as  the  want  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lean  flesh, 
of  which  the  consumer  complains ;  for  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that 
the  lean  flesh  of  a  fat  animal,  is  superior  in  quality,  and  contains 
morenourisnment,  than  any  other  meat. 

Here  it  may  be  proper  to  mention,  that  indication  of  a  tendency  to 
fatten,  which  is  technically  called  handling  well.  The  graziers  and 
butchers  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  had  recourse  to  the  hand, 
and  the  feeling  of  the  skin,  or  cellular  membrane,  for  ascertaining  a 
disposition  to  fatten  ;  but  since  Bakewell  directed  the  public  attention 
so  much  to  breeding,  that  practice  has  become  more  generally  known. 
Handling  cannot  easily  be  defined,  and  can  only  be  learnt  by  experi- 
ence. The  skin  and  flesh  of  cattle,  when  handled,  should  feel  soft  to 
the  touch,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  a  mole,  but  with  a  little  more 
resistance  to  the  finger.  A  soft  and  mellow  skin  must  be  more 
pliable,  and  more  easily  stretched  out  to  receive  any  extraordinary 
quantity  of  fat  and  muscle,  than  a  thick  or  tough  one.  The  rigid- 
skinned  animal,  must  therefore  always  be  the  most  difficult  to  fatten. 


«N  LIVE  STOCK*  127 

In  a  good  sheep,  the  skin  is  not  only  soft  and  mellow,  but  in  somtf 
degree  elastic.  Neither  cattle  or  sheep  can  be  reckoned  good, 
Whatever  their  shapes  may  be,  unless  they  are  first  rate  handlers. 

The  improved  short-horned  breed,  besides  their  mellowness  of 
skin,  are  likewise  distinguished  by  softness  and  silkiness  of  hair. 
Too  great  a  length,  however,  ought  not  to  be  aimed  at,  since  it  is  not 
easy,  in  that  case,  to  preserve  a  due  proportion  in  the  animal,  without 
which  it  cannot  be  considered  perfect. 

•  7.  Lightness  of  Of  ah — It  is  also  of  much  importance,  that  an 
animal  solely  bred  for  the  shambles,  should  have  as  little  offal  as 
possible,  and  consequently  a  greater  proportion  of  meat  applicable 
as  food  for  man. 


II.    On  the  principles  of  Improved  Breeding. 

The  art  of  improved  breeding  consists,  in  making  a  careful  selec- 
tion of  males  and  females,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  stock, 
with  fewer  defects,  and  with  greater  perfections  than  their  parents  5 
in  which  their  mutual  properties  shall  be  combined,  and  their  mutual 
faults  corrected. 

The  objects  of  improved  breeding,  therefore,  are,  to  obviate 
defects,  and  to  acquire  and  to  perpetuate  desirable  properties  ;  hence, 
when  a  race  of  animals  have  possessed,  in  a  gi*eat  degree,  through 
several  generations,  the  properties  which  it  is  our  object  to  obtain, 
their  progeny  are  said  to  be  icell-bred,  and  their  stock  may  be 
relied  on. 

It  was  upon  this  principle  of  selection,  that  Bakewell  formed  his 
celebrated  stock  of  sheep,  having  spared  no  pains  or  expense,  in 
obtaining  the  choicest  individuals,  from  all  the  best  kinds  of  long  or 
combing  woolled  sheep,  wherever  they  were  to  be  met  with  ;  and 
it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  any  breed  may  be  improved  in  the  same 
manner,  namely,  that  of  putting  the  best  males  to  the  finest  females. 
After  a  superior  breed,  however,  has  thus  been  obtained,  it  is  a  point 
that  has  been  much  disputed,  whether  it  is  proper  to  raise  stocky 
1.  From  the  same  family;  or,  2.  From  the  same  race,  but  of 
different  families  ;  or,  3.  From  races  entirely  different. 

1.  Breeding  from  the  same  Family.— -This  method  is  called 
breeding  in-and-in,  or  putting  animals  of  the  nearest  relationship 
together.  Though  this  plan  was  for  some  time  in  fashion,  under  the 
sanction  of  Bakewell's  authority,  yet  experience  has  now  proved, 
that  it  cannot  be  successfully  persevered  in.  It  may  prove  beneficial 
indeed,  if  not  carried  too  far,  in  fixing  any  variety  that  may  be 
thought  valuable,  but  on  the  whole,  it  is  only  in  appearance.  Under 
this  system,  the  young  animal  comes  into  the  world,  on  compara- 
tively, a  very  small  scale.  By  keeping  it  fat  from  the  first  moment 
of  its  existence,  it  is  made  to  attain  a  greater  size  than  nature 
intended ;  and  its  weight  in  consequence,  will  be  very  great,  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  its  bones.  Thus  a  generation  or  two  of 
animals  of  an  extraordinary  form,  and  saleable  at  enormous  prices, 
may  be  obtained  ;  but  that  does  not  prove  that  the  practice  is  eligible, 


128  on  live  stock:. 

if  long  persisted  in.  On  the  contrary  if  the  system  be  followed  up, 
the  stock  get  tender  and  delicate,  they  become  bad  feeders ;  and 
though  they  retain  their  shape  and  beauty,  they  will  decrease  in  vigor 
and  activity,  will  become  lean  and  dwarfish,  and  ultimately  incapable 
of  continuing  the  race.  The  instances  of  this  are  numerous.  The 
celebrated  breeder,  Prin&ep,  found  that  decrease  of  size  unavoidable, 
in  spite  of  all  his  endeavors  by  keeping  his  young  stock  well,  to 
prevent  it.  Sir  John  S.  Sebright  tried  many  experiments  by  breeding 
in-and-in  and  found  the  breeds  uniformly  degenerate.  A  gentleman 
who  tried  the  system  with  pigs,  brought  them  at  last  into  such  a  state, 
that  the  females  gave  over  breeding  almost  entirely,  and  when  they 
did  breed,  their  produce  was  so  small  and  delicate,  that  they  died  as 
soon  as  they  were  born.  Nay,  Mr.  Knight's  experiments  with 
plants  have  fully  convinced  him,  that  in  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  the  offspring  of  a  male  and  female,  not  related, 
will  possess  more  strength  and  vigor  than  where  they  are  both  of  the 
same  family.  This  proves  how  unprofitable  such  connexions  are. 
That  is  no  reason,  however,  why  a  breeder  may  not  manage  a  par- 
ticular family  of  animals  to  great  advantage,  by  shifting  or  changing, 
instead  of  breeding  directly  from  parents  to  offspring. 

A  change  of  seed,  is  in  general  advantageous  in  regard  both  to 
animals,  and  vegetables.  Hence  many  farmers  are  induced,  not 
only  to  change  the  seed  of  the  kinds  of  grain  they  cultivate,  but  to 
procure  males,  from  the  flocks  and  herbs  of  those  who  have  the 
same,  or  a  similar  breed  with  their  own.  It  has  been  remarked, 
that  those  farmers  have  in  general  the  worst  flocks,  who  breed  from 
rams  produced  on  their  own  farms,  and  that  an  interchange  of  males 
is  mutually  beneficial. 

With  respect  to  the  doctrine,  "  that  when  you  can  no  longer  find 
better  males  than  your  own,  then  by  all  means  breed  from  them,  for 
that  best  can  only  beget  best ;"  it  is  ably  refuted  by  an  intelligent  - 
author,  who  has  not  devoted  much  attention  to  the  art  of  breeding. 
He  observes,  that  there  never  did  exist  an  animal  without  some  defect 
in  constitution,  in  form,  or  in  some  essential  quality  ;  and  such  defect, 
however  small  it  may  be  at  first,  will  increase  in  every  succeeding 
generation,  and  at  last  predominate  in  such  a  degree,  as  to  render  the 
breed  of  little  value.  Breeding  in-and-in,  therefore,  would  only 
tend  to  increase,  and  to  perpetuate  that  defect,  which  might  be 
eradicated,  by  a  judicious  selection,  from  a  different  family,  in  the 
same  race. 

2.  The  breeding  from  different  families,  of  the  same  race,  is  there- 
fore a  preferable  system.  When  these  have  been  for  some  time 
established  in  different  situations,  and  have  had  some  light  shades  of 
difference  impressed  upon  them,  by  the  influence  of  different  climates, 
soils,  and  treatment,  it  is  found  advantageous,  to  interchange  the 
males,  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  excellencies,  and  reme- 
dying the  defects  of  each  family.  On  this  principle,  the  celebrated 
Culley  continued,  for  many  years,  to  hire  his  rams  from  Bakewell, 
at  the  very  time,  that  other  breeders  were  paying  him  a  liberal  price 
for  the  use  of  his  own  j  and  the  very  same  practice  is  followed  by  the 
most  skilful  breeders  at  present.  M 


ON  LIVE  STOCK.  129 

3.  As  to  any  attempt  at  improvement,  by  crossing  two  distinct 
breeds  or  races,  one  of  which  possesses  the  properties  which  it  is 
wished  to  obtain,  or  is  free  from  the  defects  which  it  is  desirable  to 
remove,  it  requires  a  degree  of  judgment  and  perseverance  to  render 
such  a  plan  successful,  as  is  very  rarely  to  be  met  with.  Indeed, 
though  such  crosses  may.  by  great  attention,  answer  at  first,  yet  it  is 
generally  found,  that  great  singularities  attend  such  mixtures;  and 
in  breeding  bulls,  though  some  of  them  may  apparently  do  yet  their 
breed  is  not  to  be  trusted  .JThe  first  cross  between  a  good  short- 
horned  bull,  and  a  good  Kvloe  cow,  will  make  a  good  grazing 
animal ;  but  by  proceeding  farther,  disappointment  will  ensue,  if  a 
regular  stock  be  wanted.  If  such  a  cross  is  to  be  persevered  in,  the 
male  should  always  be  of  the  same  breed  with  the  first. 

Crossing  with  larger  males  from  another  country,  is  sometimes 
attempted,  with  a  view  of  enlarging  the  size  of  stock.  But  such 
attempts  should  be  made  with  the  greatest  caution  ;  for  by  a  mistaken 
practice,  extensively  pursued,  irreparable  mischief  may  be  effected. 
Where  a  particular  race  of  animals  has  continued  for  centuries,  it 
may  be  presumed,  thar  their  constitution  is  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate.  Any  attempt,  therefore,  to  increase  the  size  of  a  native 
race  of  animals,  without  improving  their  food,  by  which  their  size  is 
regulated,  is  a  fruitless  effort  to  counteract  the  laws  of  nature.  In 
proportion  to  their  increase  of  size,  by  crossing,  they  become  worse 
in  form,  less  hardy,  and  more  liable  to  disease.  The  only  satisfactory, 
and  judicious  mode,  of  enlarging  the  size  of  any  race  of  animals  is, 
by  maintaining  better  the  original  stock  of  the  country,  more  espe- 
cially during  their  youth.  In  every  case,  where  the  enlargement  of 
the  carcase  is  the  object,  the  cross  breed  must  be  better  fed  than  the 
native  parent.  Hence,  if  a  good  stock  can  be  otherwise  obtained, 
crossing  ought  to  be  avoided  ;  for  it  produces  a  species  of  mongrel ; 
and  it  is  more  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  imperfections  thus  introduced 
into  a  breed,  than  is  commonly  imagined. 

The  eminent  surgeon  already  alluded  to,  (Henry  Cline,  Esq.)  is 
of  opinion,  that  any  improvement  of  form  by  crossing,  must  entirely 
depend,  on  selecting  a  well  formed  female,  larger  in  size  than  the 
usual  proportion  between  females  and  males.  The  foetus  will  thus, 
be  better  nourished,  which  is  so  essential  to  produce  an  animal  with, 
the  most  perfect  form.  Abund&nt  nourishment  is  necessary  from 
the  earliest  period  of  its  existence,  until  its  growth  is  complete. 
Upon  this  principle,  the  breeo.  of  English  horses  were  improved,  by 
crossing  them  with  diminutive  stallions,  Barbs,  and  Arabians.  The 
celebrated  Clydesdale  breed  of  horses  in  Scotland,  originated  from 
the  introduction  of  some  large  Flanders  mares  into  that  country ; 
and  our  hogs  have  been  improved,  by  crossing  with  the  small  Chinese 
boars.  Other  experiments  on  the  same  principle,  have  also  suceeded. 
Mr.  Spearman,  an  intelligent  farmer  in  Northumberland,  tried  a 
cross  between  the  Kyloe  or  Highland  bull,  and  the  large  short- 
horned  cow ;  and  during  the  experience  of  twenty  yearsx  found  it 
to  answer.  The  plan  recommended  by  Mr.  Cline,  has  likewise  been 
most  successfully  practised  by  M.  Vandergoes,  near  the  Hague,  who 
)*as  perhaps  the  finest  stock  ©f  dairy  cows  in  Holland.     The  excel- 

17 


130  ON  LIVE  STOCK. 

lence  of  his  breed,  he  entirely  attributes  to  his  using  none  but  young 
bulls,  who  have  not  attained  their  full  growth  or  size,  and  whom  he 
always  parts  with  at  three  years  of  age. 

The  improvement  of  the  fleece  depends,  however,  upon  the 
male ;  it  being  proved,  that  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  generations, 
using  always  the  Merino  ram,  fleeces  rivalling  the  Spanish  may  be 
obtained,  from  ewes  of  British  stock. 

In  regard  to  the  period  of  commencing  breeding,  a  cow  in  general, 
should  not  produce  a  calf,  at  an  earlier  period  than  three  years  old. 
A  bull  may  be  first  used  at  fourteen  or  eighteen  months.  He  then 
shews  most  vigor,  and  more  energy  may  be  expected  in  his  produce. 
At  two  or  three  years  old,  they  frequently  become  ungovernably 
and  are  killed.  Many  contend,  that  the  offspring  of  a  bull,  if  welf 
bred,  becomes  generally  better  till  he  reaches  seven  or  eight  years, 
and  indeed  till  his  constitution  is  impaired  by  age.  This  doctrine, 
however,  does  not  agree  with  the  practice  of  Mr.  Vandergoes  in 
Holland  ;  nor  can  the  question  be  finally  decided,  without  a  regular 
course  of  experiments. 

Some  breeders  maintain,  that  the  offspring  iake  considerably  more 
after  the  male,  than  the  female  parent.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  some  parts  of  trie  offspring  take  after  the  male,  and  some  after 
the  female.  If  the  female  be  small,  and  such  a  habit  be  permanent 
in  her  family,  the  length  of  the  legs  of  the  offspring,  will  seldom  be 
influenced  by  the  male,  but  much  by  the  female  parent  in  the  womb, 
and  will  not  subsequently  change.  The  width  and  depth,  and  con- 
sequently the  weight  of  carcase,  will  be  greatly  influenced  by  the 
male ;  and  if  he  be  of  a  large  kind,  the  offspring  will  present  great 
weight  in  a  small  compass.  This  has  been  proved  by  crossing  a 
West-Highland,  with  a  Herefordshire  bull.  The  offspring  have  the 
short  legs  of  the  West-Highland  cow,  -with  the  increased  weight  that 
might  be  expected  from  a  Hereford  bull  They  are  exceedingly 
hardy,  their  flesh  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  they  have,  at  two  years 
old,  nearly  the  proportions  of  other  stock  at  six.  The  females  are 
consequently  ready  to  be  fatted  at  two  years  old.  The  males  require 
to  be  one  year  older. 

Among  the  rules  of  breeding,  one  is,  that  the  young  should  be 
brought  forth  at  the  season  of  the  year,  when  there  is  usually  a  full 
supply  of  suitable  food.  This  is  particularly  necessary  to  be  attended 
to,  on  high  and  exposed  situations,  where  tnere  is  little  or  no  other 
provisions  than  common  pastures.  Where  this  rule  has  not  been 
adverted  to,  a  very  great  loss  has  been  sustained. 

Another  rule  in  breeding  is,  never  to  fix  on  the  ewes  to  be  put  to  a 
favorite  ram,  until  the  lambs  got  by  him,  the  preceding  year,  have 
been  examined.  The  perfections  and  defects  of  his  progeny,  are 
thus  ascertained,  and  ewes  are  given  him  accordingly.  By  such 
attention,  and  carefully  selecting  from  the  lambs,  rejecting  all 
doubtful  ones,  a  flock  is  kept  in  a  constant  state  of  progressive 
improvement.  9 


m 


ON  LIVE  STOCK.  131 


III.   On  the  proper  Management  of  Stock  in  general. 

This  is  a  subject  which  can  only,  in  this  place,  slightly  be  touched 
upon.  It  is  an  object  of  very  great  consequence  to  every  husband- 
man, to  expend,  in  the  most  economical  and  advantageous  mariner, 
the  vegetable  produce  allotted  for  the  maintenance  of  his  stock,  and 
to  bestow  it  chiefly  on  those,  from  whom  he  is  likely  to  derive  the 
greatest  and  the  earliest  benefit.  Notwithstanding  many  recent,  and 
truly  valuable  improvements,  there  still  prevails,  in  regard  to  some 
particulars,  a  sad  mixture  of  profusion  on  the  one  hand,  and  penuri- 
ousness  on  the  other.  The  saving  to  the  community,  by  a  careful 
attention  to  the  feeding  of  live  stock,  would  be  great,  and  in  times  of 
scarcity,  would  be  incalculable.  For  the  attainment  of  that  object, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  pay  regard  to;  J.  The  due  preparation, 
and  frugal  expenditure  of  their  food  ;  2.  The  appropriation  of  that 
food  to  the  different  sorts  respectively,  according  to  the  different 
species  and  breeds  of  stock, — their  different  habits  and  degrees  of 
hardiness, — and  the  different  degrees  of  exercise,  and  modes  of 
treatment  to  which  they  are  subjected ;  and,  3.  The  requisite  at- 
tention to  the  demands  of  different  periods,  the  relative  effects  of 
different  seasons  ;  and  the  state  of  the  animals  themselves,  in  regard 
to  age,  fatness,  &c. 

The  following  general  rules,  as  to  the  management  of  stock,  may 
deserve  attention. 

1.  Animals  intended  for  the  butcher,  should  be  kept  in  a  state  of 
regular  improvement.  The  finer  breeds  are  highly  fed  from  their 
birth,  and  almost  always  fat.  With  other  breeds,  and  on  pastures 
of  inferior  quality,  diis  is  neither  necessary  nor  practicable.  But  in 
every  cae,  the  same  principle  of  improvement  should  be  adhered  to, 
and  such  animals  ought  never  to  be  allowed  to  lose  flesh,  in  the 
hopes  of  afterwards  restoring  it  by  better  feeding. 

2.  The  size  should  never  be  above  that  which  the  pastures  can 
support  in  a  thriving  condition.  The  attempt  to  raise  them  to  an 
undue  size,  by  crossing,  has  been  already  censured.  In  legard  to 
size,  thef'stock  of  every  kind,  and  of  all  the  various  breeds,  should 
be  proportioned  to  the  quaruitv,  and  the  quality  of  their  intended 
food. 

3.  The  best  pasture  should  be  allotted  to  that  portion  of  the 
stock  which  goes  first  to  market ;  the  next  in  quality,  to  the  breeders; 
and  the  coarse  pasture,  to  the  inferior  or  growing  stock. 

4.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  not  to  overstock  pasture,  which  is 
attended  with  great  loss  to  the  farmer,  and  the  community.  This 
ought  to  be  particularly  avoided  in  regard  to  young  and  growing 
animals.  If  they  are  kept  poor  during  one  part  of  the  year,  they 
will  scarcely  thrive  during  the  remainder ;  and  when  ill  fed,  will 
never  attain  to  their  proper  size  and  proportion 

Lastly,  the  food,  whatever  it  may  be,  should  not  be  too  suddenly 
changed.  It  is  seldom  profitable,  to  bring  lean  animals  immediately 
from  coarse,  to  rich  pastures  $  and  a  change  from  dry,  to  succulent 


132  6N  LIVE  STOCK. 

food,  and  vice  versa,  should  be  gradually  effected.  A  change  of 
pasture,  however,  of  the  same  quality,  tends  to  produce  a  greater 
accumulation  of  fat. 

It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  nature  seems  to  have  designed 
different  sorts  of  animals  for  different  purposes.  A  breed  of  cattle, 
equally  well  adapted  to  the  butcher,  to  the  dairy,  and  to  the  plough 
or  cart,  is  no  where  to  be  met  with;  and,  so  far  as  experience 
enables  us  to  judge,  these  properties  are  hardly  consistent  with  each 
other,  and  belong  to  animals  of  different  forms  and  proportions.  A 
lieavy  Leicestershire  sheep,  for  instance,  was  never  intended  to 
travel  great  distances,  or  to  search  for  its  subsistence,  in  a  rugged  or 
mountainous  country.  The  judicious  breeder,  therefore,  will  fix 
upon  one  object  to  be  principally  attended  to ;  and  he  will  endeavor 
to  rear  that  species  of  stock,  the  best  suited  to  attain  the  object  he 
has  in  view,  or,  in  other  words,  the  most  likely  to  pay  the  most 
money,  with  the  least  food.  That  can  only  be  obtained,  by  an 
attention  to  the  principles  of  breeding,  and  the  practice  of  the  most 
eminent  farmers  who  have  excelled  in  the  art. 


ON  EMBANKMENTS  IN  SCOTLAND.  133 


[from  the  ii  vol.  or  sir  john  Sinclair's  agricultural  report.] 


On  the  Embankment  of  Rivers. 


Sect.  I. — On  protecting  Land  from  the  encroachment  of  Rivers ,■ 
by  defending  and  securing  their  Banks,  dfc. 


jCjl  RIVER  that  flows  in  a  confined  channel,  is  apt  to  commit 
ravages  on  the  adjoining  land,  by  the  continued  action  of  the  stream 
gradually  breaking  down,  and  carrying  away  the  banks,  where  they 
are  of  a  soft,  loose,  and  friable  or  penetrable  nature.  The  danger 
of  the  soil  being  carried  away  in  floods,  is  increased  or  diminished, 
according  to  circumstances ;  such  as,  the  form  of  the  banks;  the  nninre 
of  the  soil ;  the  rapidity  of  the  current ;  and  the  quantity  of  water 
that,  after  floods,  lodges  on  the  margin  of  the  banks,  or  falls  over 
them  into  the  river. 

When  the  banks  of  a  river  are  perpendicular,  or  nearly  so,  if  the 
soil  be  of  a  sandy  or  mouldering  quality,  the  danger  of  their  being 
washed  down  and  carried  away  by  floods  is  greater,  than  where  they 
slope  gently,  from  the  surface  of  the  field,  to  the  bed  of  the  river. 
But,  if  the  soil  and  subsoil  be  of  a  clayey  or  adhesive  loam,  and  the 
current  presses  equally,  and  not  more  upon  one  part  than  upon 
another,  a  simple  and  efficacious  improvement  may  be  made,  by 
sloping  the  bank  so,  that  it  forms  an  easy  declivity,  from  the  surface 
of  the  field,  to  the  beaV  M  the  river.  This  slope  soon  becomes 
closely  coated  with  grass,  and  the  water,  by  gliding  gently  along, 
is  in  no  danger  of  making  a  breach  or  encroachment,  in  any  part 
of  it. 

As  a  proof  of  this,  it  always  appears,  that  wherever  there  is  a 
gradual  slope  upon  the  bank  of  a  river,  and  the  grass  growing  upon 
it  naturally,  that  the  greatest  flood  makes  no  impression,  nor  does  it 
any  injury,  as  the  water  passes  over  it  gently,  and  not  being  confined 
or  opposed,  has  room  to  spread.  On  the  contrary,  when  it  conies^., 
against  a  ragged  or  abrupt  bank  of  earth,  it  soon  undermines,  and 
brings  it  down  in  great  quantities.  This  is  so  obvious  to  the 
slighest  o|||erver,  that  it  is  astonishing,  so  simple  and  easy  a  remedy 
should  not  be  resorted  to,  in  all  cases  where  the  banks  are  of  this 
fast  description. 


134  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

A  stream  of  water  having  naturally  a  greater  inclination  to  recede 
from,  than  to  surmount  the  obstacles  it  meets,  it  always  takes  an 
angular  or  serpentine  course  ;  and  it  is  in  consequence  of  the  river 
thus  dashing  from  side  to  side,  that  injury  is  done  to  the  banks. 
Were  a  river  to  flow  in  a  straight  line,  (which  it  would  invariably  do, 
if  not  interrupted,)  or  even  nearly  so,  it  would  make  no  encroach- 
ment on  its  banks. 

The  most  effectual  remedy  in  snch  cases,  must  therefore  be,  to 
straighten  the  course  of  the  stream. 

This  is  an  operation  which,  in  respect  of  natural  circumstances, 
might  in  many  cases  be  performed  with  little  difficulty  and  expense, 
and,  where  most  essential,  usually  with  the  greatest  facility.  But 
the  smallest  improvement  of  this  kind,  is  in  general  rendered 
impracticable,  by  minute  divisions  of  property,  and  other  attendant 
causes.  A  river  is  considered  to  be  so  far  a  common  subject,  that 
k  while  a  proprietor  is  entitled  to  take  every  natural  advantage  of  the 
stream  in  passing,  he  is  interdicted  from  executing  any  operation 
upon  it,  which  can  prove  injurious  to  the  other  individuals,  who 
possess  land  upon  its  banks.  For  example,  if  by  ponds  or  dams, 
he  throw  back  the  water  upon  a  superior  property,  or  by  juttees, 
direct  its  strength  upon  the  opposite  bank,  or  by  straightening  the 
channel  make  the  river  rush  with  more  than  usual  violence  upon 
the  inferior  lands;  he  will  commit  an  injury  in  each  case,  of  which 
his  neighbor  has  a  right  to  complain.  There  is,  in  fact,  in  every 
situation,  such  a  collision  of  interests,  that  it  is  seldom  possible  to 
reconcile  them  in  any  violent  alteration  on  a  river  ;  and,  above  all, 
in  so  radical  a  one  as  that  of  straightening  the  channel. 

The  case  in  which  this  measure  may  be  recommended  as  most 
expedient,  is  that  of  those  mountain  streams,  which  intersects  the 
haughs,  or  hollows  between  the  different  ranges  of  hills  and  high 
lands.  All  these  haughs  possess  soil  of  the  richest  kind,  composed 
of  particles  of  earth  washed  down  from  the  heights ;  and  they  form 
the  most  valuable  portions  of  land,  both  in  the  low  country  and  in 
the  highlands.  But  in  consequence  of  the  streams  that  intersect 
them  being  allowed  to  roam  at  pleasure,  a  great  portion  of  the  soil 
is  in  each  instance  unnecessarily  lost,  and  what  remains,  is  so 
constantly  liable  to  be  broken  up  and  destroyed,  that  the  produce 
of  haugh  lands  rests  altogether  upon  a  most  precarious  tenure.  To 
explain  these  facts,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  when  a  stream  is 
permitted  to  wander  at  will  through  such  hollows,  it  occupies,  by  its 
devious  course,  four  or  five  times  the  quantity  of  ground  which  it 
would  if  carried  in  a  straight  line ;  that  in  consequence  of  the 
angular  outline  of  the  banks,  the  river  strikes  against  them  with 
violence,  and  continually  makes  encroachments  ;  and  that  by  the 
circuitous  direction  of  the  stream,  and  the  turbulence  which  that 
occasions,  the  evil  effects  of  every  flood  are  greatty  increased. 

The  advantages  of  straightening  such  a  stream  accordingly,  are, 
1  That  a  great  addition  of  valuable  soil  will  be  obtained  ;  2.  That 
the  stream  will  be  rendered  more  placid,  less  capable  of  cjping  injury 
to  the  banks,  and  less  extensive  in  its  inundations. 


IN   SCOTLAND.  135 

The  execution  of  the  operation  is  moreover  much  easier  in  this 
than  in  other  cases.  The  streams  which  take  their  course  through 
haugh  lands,  are  in  general  nearly  exhausted,  sometimes  entirely  so, 
during  the  summer  months  ;  so  that  an  alteration  of  the  channel,  at 
that  period  of  the  year,  may  be  accomplished  with  considerable 
facility.  And  further,  the  soil,  as  well  as  substratum  of  haugh  lands, 
consists  generally  of  loose  and  incohesive  materials,  which  are  easily 
dug  and  removed. 

The  great  object,  in  improving  the  course  of  a  haugh  stream, 
should  be,  to  lead  it  as  straight  forward  as  possible.  If  the  haugh 
be  winding,  or  there  be  obstructions,  which  prevent  a  cut  from  being 
made  in  a  straight  line  from  the  entrance  to  the  outfall,  the  stream 
should  be  led  from  side  to  side  of  the  haugh  in  straight  reaches, 
always  endeavoring  to  make  some  prominent  rock,  or  point  of 
sufficient  firmness  to  resist  the  current,  the  vortex  of  each  angle;  or, 
where  such  cannot  be  found,  raising  a  bulwark  of  stones  in  its  place  : 
or  it  may  be  led  along  the  foot  of  the  bank  all  the  way,  by  which 
means  the  haugh  will  be  kept  entire,  and  the  natural  bank  will  be  a 
barrier  on  the  one  side ;  and  the  earth  thrown  out  of  the  cut  will  be 
sufficient  to  form  an  embankment  on  the  other,  and  likewise  to  fill  up 
the  old  channel. 

When  a  new  channel  is  designed  to  be  cut,  its  breadth  may  be 
less  than  that  of  the  old,  while  its  depth  ought  to  be  greater ;  because 
the  narrower  and  deeper  a  channel  is,  the  water  always  flows  with 
greater  ease  and  regularity.  The  lines  of  the  intended  banks  being 
marked  out,  the  earth  should  first  be  dug  out  from  the  middle  of  the 
inclosed  space,  to  the  full  depth  proposed  ;  and  on  each  side,  the 
depth  of  the  excavation  should  be  gradually  lessened,  so  as  to  form 
a  convexical  slope  to  the  tops  of  the  banks,  this  form  being  of  all 
others  the  best  fitted  for  diminishing  the  pressure  of  the  water. 

To  secure  the  new  banks  against  the  action  of  the  stream,  they 
should  be  carefully  faced  with  stones  or  turf.  The  former  compose 
the  best  defence,  and  may  in  most  cases  be  employed,  as  abundance 
of  stones  is  generally  to  be  found  on  the  banks  of  mountain  streams. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  facing,  the  stones  should  be  of  the  largest  sort, 
and  sunk  well  into  the  ground,  to  prevent  the  water  from  undermining 
the  bank.  In  carrying  up  the  rest  of  the  wall,  the  stones  should  be 
laid  endwise,  their  inner  ends  pointing  to  the  same  centre  like  the 
stones  of  an  arch ;  and  earth  or  gravel,  should  be  rammed  firmly 
behind,  as  the  work  proceeds.  Between  the  stone-work,  and  the 
green  sward  on  the  top  of  the  bank,  there  should  be  several  layers 
of  thick  tough  sods,  which  will  not  only  serve  to  bind  the  stones 
but  make  the  junction  of  the  work  with  the  natural  bank,  smooth 
and  compact.  When  the  whole  facing  is  executed,  the  stones  and 
sods  should  be  forcibly  beaten  into  the  bank  with  mallets  and  rammers 
in  order  to  make  it  more  firm  and  secure.  If  any  fissures  still 
appear,  long  splinters  of  stone  should  be  driven  in,  which  will  not 
only  fill  up  the  vacant  spaces,  but  act  as  wedges  to  fasten  and  conso- 
lidate the  rest  of  the  work.  When  sods  are  employed  to  make  the 
facing  instead  of  stones,  the  foundation  ought  at  all  events  to  be 
defended  by  large  stones  ;  and  it  may  also  be  proper  to  drive  a 


136  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

single  or  double  line  of  stakes  into  the  bank,  to  prevent  the  current 
from  tearing  away  the  sods. 

in  the  case  either  of  stone  or  turf  facing,  it  has  been  useful  to 
scatter  a  quantity  of  course  hay-seeds  over  them,  as  they  vegetate 
quickly,  and  tend  greatly  to  fasten  the  work.  The  firmness  of  the 
bank  may  also  be  considerably  increased,  by  setting  willows  or  other 
aquatic  plants  along  the  top. 

The  most  difficult  branch  of  the  whole  operation,  is  that  of  leading 
the  stream  out  of  the  old  into  the  new  channel.  When  the  mouth 
of  the  new  cut  can  be  made  to  fall  in  with  a  bend  of  the  old  channel, 
the  change  may  be  made  with  comparative  ease,  as  the  current  will 
flow  into  the  new  channel  in  a  straight  line.  In  this  case,  the 
materials  dug  out  in  forming  the  mouth  of  the  new  cut,  may  be 
sufficient,  when  thrown  across  the  old  stream,  to  turn  jts  course. 
But  if  the  alteration  of  the  channel  be  abrupt,  and  the  stream  strong, 
it  will  be  requisite  to  raise  a  pier  of  stone  upon  the  bank  of  the  old 
channel,  to  direct  the  current  forward  to  the  new  one,  a  water-tight 
dam  being  formed  between  the  point  of  the  pier  and  the  new  bank. 

The  materials  dug  out  from  the  new  channel,  may  either  be 
employed  in  filling  up  the  old  one,  and  thus  facilitating  its  future 
conversion  into  arable  or -pasture  land  ;  or  if  the  stream  be  liable  to 
high  floods,  they  may  be  used  in  erecting  embankments  on  each  side 
of  the  new  channel. 

In  the  case  of  vale  rivers,  the  expedient  of  straightening  the 
channel  is  equally  advisable,  though  not  so  practicable,  as  it  is  upon 
alpine  streams,  in  the  latter  case,  a  cut  three  or  four  feet  deep  may 
frequently  suffice,  and  stones  for  erecting  piers,  and  facing  the  banks^. 
are  found  in  abundance ;  while  in  the  former,  a  depth  of  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  is  sometimes  necessary,  and  stones  are  not  obtained 
without  considerable  difficulty.  There  may,  nevertheless,  often  be 
situations,  where  the  extent  of  ground  to  be  acquired  by  a  new  cut 
through  a  valley,  will  amply  repay  every  expense  and  trouble 
attending  the  operation. 

Of  many  similar  instances,  the  following  is  one,  where  nearly 
1000  acres  have  been  secured  in  this  way,  at  a  very  trifling  expense; 
and,  as  a  particular  description  of  it  may  be  useful,  in  directing  the 
execution  of  operations  of  the  same  kind,  it  is  given  at  length. 

In  the  parish  of  Kilsyth,  Stirlingshire,  the  riveif  has  its  course  for 
upwards  of  four  miles,  over  a  plain  of  small  declivity,  and  of  a  soft 
loamy  soil.  It  formerly  straggled  in  many  directions  over  this  plain, 
in  a  channel  of  very  little  depth.  At  every  turn  it  took,  it  was 
gorged  up  into  a  pool,  and  was  overgrown  with  aquaitc  vegetables. 
At  every  flood,  the  whole  valley  presented  the  appearance  of  a  lake; 
the  hay  and  corn  harvests  were  frequently  ruined  ;  and  several  fields 
naturally  of  rich  soil,  were'rendered  incapable  of  cultivation. 

About  the  year  1793,  Sir  Archibald  Edmoudston  of  Duntreath^ 
Bart,  who  was  proprietor  of  the  lands,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river,  for  more  than  four  miles,  employed  Mr.  Witworth,  an  eminent 
engineer,  to  form  the  plan  of  a  new  cut,  sufficient  at  all  times  to 
contain  the  waters  of  the  river,  and  as  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  as- 
the  situation  of  the  grounds,  and  the  course  of  the  river  would 


IN  SCOTLAND  137 

admit.  To  induce  the  proprietors  on  the  south  side  to  join  in  this 
useful  undertaking,  he  generously  offered  to  lay  out  two  thirds  of  the 
expense  himself.  So  slow,  however,  are  persons  of  unenlightened 
minds  in  discerning  their  own  interest,  that  only  a  few  of  them,  at 
that  period,  acceded  to  these  advantageous  terms.  During  the  first 
year,  only  about  a  mile  and  three  quarters  of  the  new  cut  were 
executed.  But  the  advantages  of  this  partial  improvement  soon 
became  so  obvious,  that  the  greatest  part  of  the  conterminous  heritors 
concurred  with  Sir  Archibald  in  prosecuting  the  plan,  though  not 
altogether  upon  such  liberal  terms,  as  ajust  sense  of  their  own  interest 
might  have  dictated.  Early  in  the  course  of  the  second  year,  the 
cut  was  completed  in  the  parish  of  Kilsyth. 

The  dimensions  of  this  cut  were  varied  judiciously,  according  to 
the  gradual  increment  which  the  river  receives  in  iis  course.  For 
the  first  mile  from  above,  where  the  river  is  of  considerable  extent, 
it  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  by  ten  to  twelve 
at  the  bottom.  Throughout  the  second  mile  it  is  from  twenty-two  to 
twenty-four  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  by  fourteen  or  sixteen  at  the 
bottom.  Throughout  the  remaining  part,  it  is  about  twenty-eight 
feet  at  the  surface,  by  sixteen  to  eighteen  at  the  bottom. 

The  first  part  of  this  cut  was  undertaken  by  the  contractor  at 
twopence  per  cubic  yard,  but  he  was  only  bound  to  lay  down  the 
earth  regularly  at  the  distance  of  a  yard  from  the  cut.  without  any 
obligation  to  form  it  into  a  regular  sloping  bank.  It  was  understood 
that  the  counterminous  heritors  would  execute  this  part  of  the 
operation.  As  they,  however,  proved  negligent  in  this  respect,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  enlarge  the  contract :  and  twopence  farthing 
per  cubic  yard  was  allowed  for  cutting,  and  for  forming  rhe  bank. 
The  low  rate  at  which  this  contract  was  entered  into,  may  be 
accounted  for  at  this  day.  not  merely  from  the  facility  of  working  in 
a  rich  loam  or  clay,  but  chiefly  from  the  well-known,  and  by  many, 
severely  felt,  depreciation  of  money  from  that  period.  Such  a  work 
would  not  probably  be  now  undertaken  for  less  than  fourpence  per 
cubic  yard.  The  expense  of  the  whole  of  this  cut,  through  Kilsyth, 
did  not  exceed  £600. 

'  The  embankment  on  the  sides  of  the  cut  is  erected  about  three 
feet  from  the  brink,  and  is,  for  the  most  part  somewhat  more  than 
three  feet  in  height.  It  may  afterwards  be  raised,  should  it  be  found 
necessary,  a  foot  or  two  higher,  leaving  a  water-course  of  between 
thirty  and  forty  feet  in  width,  which  could  contain  nearly  double  the 
quantity  of  water  that  now  runs. 

The  improvement,  which  has  been  now  described,  has  been 
productive  of  very  important  advantages  in  this  naturally  fertile 
district.  The  declivity,  or  fall  of  the  river,  throughout  the  tract,  is 
about  eighteen  feet.  The  waters  which  formerly,  in  their  crooked 
course,  were  almost  wholly  stagnated,  now  run  at  the  ordinary  rate 
of  the  declivity  which  is  given  them.  They  never  overflow  their 
banks.  Cattle  can  now  pasture  upon  those  grounds  in  which  they 
would  have  formerly  been  swamped.  The  surface  of  the  water 
being  now,  for  the  most  part,  four,  and  sometimes  six  feet  below 
that  of  the  adjacent  fields,  this  cut  serves  as  a  general  drain  to  the 

18 


138  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

whole  valley;  so  that  three  hundred  acres  Of  meadow  may  be 
converted  into  arable  land  ;  sixty  acres  of  moss  niay  be  converted 
into  meadow  ;  and  five  hundred  acres  of  arable  land  are  already 
rendered  of  double  value. 

If  the  winding  of  a  river  cannot  be  altered,  either  from  natural 
obstacles,  or  from  the  opposing  interests  of  proprietors;  or  the 
expense  of  the  alteration  be  such  as  to  render  it  unprofitable,  it  then 
becomes  the  duty  of  proprietors  to  consider,  how  far  the  subsisting 
channel  can  be  improved,  so  as  to  lessen  the  violence  of  the  stream  ; 
or  what  means  can  be  adopted,  for  guarding  their  own  lands,  without 
injuring  those  of  their  neighbours. 

As  the  impediments  a  river  meets,  are  the  cause  of  its  being 
turbulent,  the  first  and  most  obvious  thing  to  be  done,  is,  to  remove 
all  heaps  of  mud,  stones,  trees,  or  bushes,  which  are  collected  in  the 
channel,  and  obstruct  the  course  of  the  water. 

At  those  places  where  the  river  encroaches,  the  means  which  may 
be  used  to  defend  the  banks  are  various.  In  some  instances,  bul- 
warks of  stone,  laid  regularly  in  wooden  frames,  have  been  raised  ; 
but  though  some  wooden  frames  facilitate  the  construction  of  the 
work,  they  prove  ultimately  injurious  to  it;  for,  in  consequence  of 
being  alternately  wet  and  dry,  they  soon  rot  and  give  way,  leaving 
wide  gaps,  through  which  the  water  enters  and  breaks  up  the  em- 
bankment. In  some  places,  large  sloping  cauls  of  loose  stones  have 
been  employed  ;  but  where  the  extent  of  the  bank  to  be  defended  is 
great,  or  timber  scarce,  such  a  bulwark  is  expensive,  while  it  is  at 
best  only  temporary. 

Another  method  has  been  recommended  by  Dr.  Walker  in  his 
Economical  History  of  the  Hebrides,  as  preferable  to  either  of  these. 
"  Form  a  single  or  double  line  of  stakes  in  the  bed,  or  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  of  the  branches  of  trees.  These  stakes  may  be  from 
the  thickness  of  one's  wrist  to  that  of  a  man's  leg;  they  are  to  be  dri- 
ven into  the  soil  between  two  and  four  feet  deep,  and  reach  above  the 
ground,  or  above  the  water,  a  little  higher  than  the  greatest  flood. 
They  may  be  from  six  to  twelve  inches  distant  from  each  other,  and 
if  there  is  a  double  row,  they  are  to  be  placed  in  the  quincunx 
order." 

"  Such  stakes  thus  situated,  can  neither  be  displaced  nor  shaken 
by  any  force  of  water ;  they  stop  and  entangle  every  sort  of  refuse 
brought  down  by  the  river;  they  intercept  the  mud  and  the  gravel, 
which  gradually  form  a  bank,  and  force  the  river  to  establish  a  barier 
against  its  own  incursions ;  a  barrier  likewise  far  more  efficacious 
and  more  permanent,  than  any  that  can  be  formed  by  art,  with  earth 
and  stones." 

It  is  an  obvious  property  of  this  mode  of  defence  against  the 
encroachments  of  rivers,  that  it  is  easily  and  quickly  executed,  and 
at  a  mere  trifle  of  expense.  A  single  cart-load  of  such  stakes,  in 
some  situations,  might  effectually  preserve  many  acres  of  rich  land. 
Every  river,  by'the  above  method,  may  be  thus  turned  and  directed 
in  its  course  at  will.  It  would  always  be  advantageous,  if  the  stakes., . 
employed  in  this  way,  were  of  the  different  sorts  of  willows. 


IN  SCOTLAND.  139 

(j  These  take  root,  grow  and  form  a  strong  living  fence  against 
the  river  But  if  stakes  of  willows  cannot  be  provided,  cuttings  or 
truncheons  of  willows  ought  to  be  sunk  in  along  with  the  stakes,  and 
intermixed  with  them." 

"  For  this  purpose,  the  shrubby  and  low  growing  willows  are 
more  proper  than  the  mast  willow,  the  osier,  the  crack  willow,  or 
any  others  which  urow  up  to  a  tree." 

This  mode  of  defence  is  judicious;  but  the  difficulty  of  executing 
U  in  a  proper  manner,  may  perhaps  exclude  it  from  general  adoption. 
To  enable  the  piles  to  withstand  the  force  of  the  river,  they  must  be 
sunk  a  greater  depth  into  the  ground  than  it  is  possible  for  any  mallet 
to  drive  them  Dr.  Walker  mentions  from  two  to  four  feet  of  depth 
as  sufficient ;  but  from  the  experience  of  others,  it  appears,  that  at 
least  eight  or  nine  feet  is  necessary,  to  render  the  piles  firm,  and  to 
this  depth  they  cannot  be  driven  by  any  thing  else  than  a  pile  engine, 
which  in  many  situations  it  is  difficult,  and  in  all  circumstances 
expensive,  to  procure.  The  inability  of  mallets  to  drive  the  piles, 
was  particularly  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Miller  of  Dal- 
swinton,  upon  the  river  Nith  in  Dumfries-shire.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  encroachment  of  this  river  upon  part  of  his  property,  he  drove 
in  a  number  of  piles  at  a  little  distance  from  the  bank,  and  wattled 
them  with  willows,  branches,  &c.  The  piles  were  driven  with  heavy 
mallets  apparently  firm  in  the  ground  ;  they  continued  so  for  some 
months,  till  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  having  swelled  the  river,  the  piles 
were  undermined  and  carried  away. 

When  there  is  an  opportunity  of  executing  a  bulwark  of  piles 
properly,  the  method  adopted  by  Mr.  Miller  of  wattling  them  with 
willows,  &c.  will  be  extremely  useful  in  intercepting  the  mud  and 
refuse  brought  down  by  the  stream. 

A  more  easy  and  effectual  device,  than  any  which  has  yet  been 
mentioned,  for  defending  the  banks  of  a  river,  is  that  of  stone  piers 
orjuttees.  The  object  of  these  is,  to  throw  off  the  stream  from 
those  places  on  which  it  threatens  to  make  encroachments,  to  others 
where  it  can  commit  no  injury. 

A  jutty  of  this  kind  ought  to  be  carried  out  in  an  oblique  direction^ 
so  as  to  force  the  current  gradually  towards  the  intended  point. 
If  formed  too  much  at  right  angles  with  the  stream,  it  will  throw 
the  stream  with  violence  on  the  opposite  bank,  from  which  it 
will  revert  with  double  force  upon  the  place  immedine'y  belo^ 
the  pier;  so  that  instead  of  diminishing,  it  would  increase  the  de* 
structive  effects  of  the  stream.  But  if  the  jutty  is  pi  tced  o  Iiquely, 
it  will  force  the  current  gradually  down  the  stream  ;  in  which 
position,  one  jutty  may  do  more  good,  than  several  places  impro- 
perly at  right  angles.  It  may  be  further  remarked,  that  when  a  pier 
is  abrubtly  intruded  into  the  natural  channel,  it  requires  from  five  to 
ten  times  more  strength  of  structure,  than  one  which  deviates 
gradually  from  the  direction  of  the  water;  in  the  one  case  there  is 
tioth  the  weight  and  force  of  the  water,  while  in  the  other  there  Is 
merely  its  weight  to  withstand.  And,  above  all,  it  is  important  to 
consider,  that  by  making  the  pier  in  the  direction  prescribed,  it 
cannot  occasion  any  injury  to  the  opposite  bank. 


140  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

The  materials  for  constructing  a  guide  of  this  nature,  depend  upon 
the  magnitude  of  the  stream  to  be  directed.  If  it  be  small,  a  ridge 
of  stones  thrown  looselv  in  may  suffice :  a  barrier  of  this  sort  is 
both  cheap  and  effectual,  and  when  injured  by  any  extraordinary 
flood,  is  easily  repaired.  When  the  land  through  which  it  passes,  is 
Very  valuable,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  a  town,  and  the  river  is  large 
and  rapid,  so  that  a  pier  of  considerable  height  is  necessary,  it  is 
proper,  if  the  expense  be  not  excessive,  to  construct  the  pier  of  stone 
and  mortar.  In  other  situations,  where  masonry  is  too  expensive, 
and  the  ground  of  less  value,  it  may  serve  the  purpose,  to  employ 
casoons,  formed  with  piles  and  planks,  or  strong  cases  of  wicker- 
work,  and  filled  with  small  stones  or  gravel,  in  order  to  give  them 
stability,  and  these  should  be  sunk  along  the  edge  of  tire  banks. 
These  last  expedients  have  been*  practised  most  successfully,  on 
several  pajts  of  the  river  Spey,  and  by  Mr.  Skene,  at  Careston,  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  South  Esk. 

As  the  Spey  is  one  of  the  most  rapid  and  impetuous  rivers  in 
Scotland,  and  as  the  methods  of  embanking  it  have  been  various 
and  expensive,  the  following  description  of  these  operations,  in  its 
course  through  the  park  of  Gordon  Castle,  where  it  is  most  un- 
governable may  be  useful  in  similar  cases,  and  is  given,  from  the 
Agricultural  Survey  of  the  county  of  Banff. 

"It  is  believed  that  the  Spey  first  began  to  make  encroachments 
on  the  skirts  of  the  park  of  Gordon  Castle,  in  September  1768,  by 
the  violence  of  the  highest  flood  which  tradition  has  kept  on  record. 
The  first  kind  of  embankments  which  were  thereupon  attempted, 
were  expensive  bulwarks  of  stone,  built  by  the  mason,  but  without 
mortar.  Their  appearance,  indeed,  bespoke  both  efficiency  and  du- 
ration ;  but,  like  other  fair  appearances,  "  it  smiled  deceitful ;"  and 
notwithstanding  the  continuance  of  expensive  operations,  the  river, 
frequently  levelling  the  works,  maintained  the  contest  with  success, 
and,  on  the  whole,  gained  ground,  when  the  opposing  power  was 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Mr.  Smeaton,  who,  on  a  brief 
survey,  disapproved  of  all  the  costly  bulwarks,  and  directed  nothing 
more  expensive  than  mounds  of  stone,  loosely  thrown  together,  al- 
most at  random,  from  the  bed  of  the  river,  with  no  other  art  than  to 
be  raised  higher  than  the  water  could,  at  any  time,  surpass,  and  to 
form  a  sloping  shore,  shelving  back  from  the  channel  of  the  river. 
The  embankments  constructed  on  this  principle,  have  been,  almost 
to  a  wish,  successful.  The  river  now  is,  as  it  were,  entirely  subdued; 
and  the  highest  floods,  although  their  violence  in  a  thaw  be  exaspe- 
rated by  heavy  masses  of  floating  ice,  hastens  harmless  along,  dash- 
ing onwards  directly  into  the  sea. 

"  On  some  occasions,  there  has  been  a  departure  in  practice  from 
Mr.  Smeaton's  theory,  by  forming  a  kind  of  mole  of  stakes,  in  colla- 
teral rows,  to  the  breadth  of  four  or  six  feet,  driven  firm  into  the  gra- 
vel, by  the  powerful  repeated  strokes  of  an  appropriate  engine.  The 
stakes  were  bound  together,  near  the  top,  by  transverse  bars,  and 
supported  by  stones,  thrown  in  to  fill  up  nearly  all  the  vacuities. 
This  kind  of  embankment  was  more  expensive  than  the  former,  al- 
though the  timber  was  furnished,  without  price,  from  the  forest  on  the 


IN  SCOTLAND.  141 

other  side  of  the  park,  and  it  was  less  efficient,  because,  instead  of  di- 
minishing the  power  of  the  stream  upon  the  gradual  shelving  of  the 
slope,  it  was  increased  by  direct  accumulation  against  the  perpendi- 
cular side  of  the  mole;  and,  instead  of  adding  any  depositions  of 
gravel,  and  turning  the  channel  thereby  to  a  greater  distance  from  the 
shore,  the  toirent  was  brought  to  bear  harder  on  the  pile,  and  any 
gravel,  which  had  been  left  there  before,  was  swept  bare  oft'.  The 
ordinary  bed  of  the  river,  was  established  along  the  course  of  this 
kind  of  pier  ;  and  it  somehow  not  admitting  easily  of  repair,  brought 
the  case  into  a  worse  state,  almost,  than  it  had  been  before. 

"  To  render  this'kind  of  mole  efficient,  therefore,  it  would  be  ne- 
cessary, to  add  also  the  shelving  slope  of  stone  along  the  base  of  the 
pile,  forming  that  gradually  rising  shore,  which  the  river  itself,  on 
some  occasions,  exhibits,  and  which  no  power  of  the  flood,  thence- 
forth, ever  injures ;  as  if  nature  would  thereby  teach  us,  the  only  se- 
cure mode  of  guarding  against  the  robberies  of  the  torrent." 

When  the  pier  consists  of  masonry,  it  has  been  found  prudent,  to 
throw  in  a  number  of  large  rough  stones  against  the  foundation,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  stream  from  undermining  it.  Opposite  to  the 
head  and  outer  point  of  the  piers,  piles  should  also  be  driven  into  the 
channel,  to  break  the  force  of  the  water,  and  secure  these  important 
parts  of  the  work  from  dilapidation. 

There  is  another  evil  that  piers  are  exposed  tq  during  floods,  of 
which  it  is  proper,  also,  to  take  notice.  When  the  river  surmounts 
the  pier,  the  body  of  water  which  falls  over,  naturally  scoops  out  a 
pit  in  the  ground  behind,  and  undermines  the  precipice  over  which  it 
tumbles.  This  evil  may  be  wholly  removed,  by  raising  the  pier  so 
high,  as  to  prevent  any  overfall ;  but,  this  is  a  remedy  too  extreme  to 
be  often  advisable.  The  most  prudent  plan  is,  to  endeavour  to  break 
the  strength  of  the  fall,  or  to  shield  the  ground  from  its  violence.  Fop 
the  former  purpose,  the  back  part  of  the  pier  may  be  made  with  a 
shelving,  or  flatly  inclined  surface :  for  the  latter,  a  strong  convex 
floor,  paved  with  stone,  may  be  made  behind  the  pier,  to  receive  the 
fall  of  the  water.  Of  the  efficacy  of  this  last  method,  Mr.  Marshall* 
gives  a  strong  example.  tl  Some  ten  or  twelve  years  ago,"  he  says? 
"  finding  that  the  foundation  of  a  sea-wall,  (or  strong  stone-facing 
against  a  wide  open  estuary,  j  over  which  a  large  body  of  water,  in 
times  of  floods,  falls  six  or  eight  feet  perpendicular,  was  constantly 
under  repair,  though  every  known  expedient  had  been  used  to  coun- 
teract the  effect,  I  directed  a  convex  floor,  nearly  in  the  form  of  at 
shield,  to  be  laid  with  strong  rough  stones,  its  margins  being  secured 
with  the  largest  stones,  as  butments  to  the  arch  ;  the  broad  end  of 
the  shield  buts  against  the  foundation  of  the  wall,  and  receives  the 
water  on  its  strongest  part,  the  point  gently  declining  to  lead  off  the 
water  smoothly  into  the  sea.  It  still  remains  perfectly  firm ;  per^ 
haps,  indeed,  firmer  than  when  it  was  first  put  down."  This  is  a 
ease,  where,  its  being  a  protection  from  the  sea:  it  required  more  par- 


r  0n  Landed  Property . 


14&  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

ticnlar  strength,  and,  consequently,  would  be  more  expensive,  than 
what  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  rivers. 

The  expedient  of  juttees,  which  has  been  already  explained,  is  cer- 
tainly preferable  to  any  other  mode  of  defending  the  banks  of  a  rapid 
river,  both  in  point  of  ease  and  efficacy,  and  deserves  tp  be  more  gen- 
erally adopted  than  it  is.  A  strong  instance  of  its  superiority  occur- 
red#  in  the  case  of  the  river  Nith,  formerly  mentioned.  After  the 
pil^s  which. Mr  Miller  raised  had  failed,  he  resorted  to  the  use  of 
juttees,  and  found  them  to  succeed  completely.  Those  which  he  has 
erected,  have  a  convexical  slope  on  the  side  next  the  current,  in  or- 
der to  diminish  the  pressure  of  the  water  ;  and  strong  planks  are  also 
firmly  set  on  edge  among  the  stones,  their  ends  pointed  towards  the 
river  ;  so  that  to  commit  the  smallest  injury,  the  stream  must  move 
the  whole  body  of  stones  on  the  line  of  each  plank. 

Where  a  river  flows  slowly,  and  its  banks  are  of  a  soft  earthy  na- 
ture, the  mode  of  resisting  encroachments  should  be  different  from, 
and  will  be  less  expensive  than,  any  which  has  yet  been  mentioned. 
Let  a  large  quantity  of  the  smallest  branches  of  trees,  of  broom, 
whin,  bramble,  or  such-like  brush-wood,  be  placed  in  the  river,  near 
the  side  where  it  threatens  to  encroach.  If  the  river  runs  slow,  they 
require  merely  to  be  thrown  in  ;  but,  if  its  current  is  considerable, 
they  must  be  stuck  into  the  bottom,  and  fastened  with  stakes,  driven 
through  them  into  the  sides  of  the  bank  This  heap  of  rubbish,  in- 
tercepts the  slime  and  mud  of  the  river,  which  quickly  accumulates 
into  the  bank,  and  becomes  a  most  effectual  defence  against  any  fur- 
ther eneroachment  in  that  quarter. 

Such  are  the  principal  methods  that  have  been  successfully  em- 
ployed, for  protecting  and  securing  the  banks  of  rivers  in  Scotland. 
There  may  be  other  expedients,  but  these  being  of  less  efficacy,  only 
temporary  in  their  duration,  and  impossible  to  recommend  them  to 
practice,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  them. 

J5ect.  II. — On  the  embankment  of  low  ground  on  the  side  of  Ri- 
vers, to  prevent  inundation. 

In  those  wide  and  extensive  regions  that  lie  under  a  warm  climate, 
the  rivers  are  generally  periodical  in  their  inundations,  from  the 
rains  falling  only  at  certain  periods  of  the  year ;  and  the  regularity 
of  the  floods  is  greater  in  proportion,  as  the  rivers  are  extensive  in 
their  course.  Thus,  the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Pegu,  the  Ganges,  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  Plata,  are  distinguished  for  their  regular  and  an- 
nual floods. 

In  these  cases,  an  inundation,  instead  of  spreading  ruin  in  its  pro- 
gress, is  the  source  of>  extraordinary  benefit.  The  mud  and  slime 
which  it  deposites,  form  a  regular  supply  of  the  richest  manure,  the 
soil  is  raised  to  the  highest  degree  of  fertility,  and  being  constantly 
recruited,  can  never  be  exhausted.  The  inhabitants  too,  beinjj  al- 
ways aware  of  the  precise  time  at  which  the  inundation  will  take 
place,  have  it  in  their  power,  to  provide  against  its  doing  injury,  and 


IN    SCOTLAND. 


148 


to  prepare  the  grouird  for  receiving  the  nutriment  with  which  the 
water  is  stored. 

Rut  in  countries  like  Scotland,  which  are  narrow  in  extent,  over- 
spread with  mountains,  and  exposed  to  a  variable  and  humid  climate, 
the  rivers  are  short  in  their  progress,  and  liable  to  be  suddenly  swol- 
len. A  flood,  then,  invariably  commits  wide  and  severe  ravages. 
Sometimes  it  entirely  strips  the  land  of  its  vegetable  soil ;  at  others, 
covers  it  with  a  thick  bed  of  sand  and  gravel.  Not  unfrequenrly  the 
water  loses  its  usual  course,  and  cuts  a  new  channel  through  rich  and 
cultivated  fieids ;  and  the  most  disastrous  scene  of  all,  is.  to  behold 
Valuable  crops,  and  sometimes  herds  of  cattle,  swept  off  by  the  flood. 

"  Wide  o'er  the  brim,  with  many  a  torrent  swell'd, 
And  the  mix'd  ruin  of  its  banks  o'erspread, 
At  last,  the  roused-up  river  pours  along; 
Resistless,  roaring,  dreadful,  down  it  comes, 
From  the  iiide  mountain,  and  the  mossy  wild, 
Tumbling  through  rocks  abrupt,  and  sounding  far  i 
Then  o'er  the  sanded  valley  floating  spreads, 
Calm,  sluggish,  silent." 

The  flat  Hanghs,  (as  they  are  called  in  Scotland)  or  low  ground, 
formed  near  the  entrance,  and  on  the  sides  of  rivers,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  composed  of  the  richest  and  most  fertilized  particles  of  earth, 
brought  down  by  the  stream,  from  the  adjacent  country,  through 
which  it  flows  These,  from  their  situation,  are  often  exposed  to  de- 
vastation, by  their  banks  being  encroached  upon,  and  carried  away 
in  time  of  floods,  whereby  a  portion  of  valuable  soil  is  lost,  and  a  bank 
of  sand,  or  gravel,  lodged  on  the  opposite  side,  in  its  stead.  But, 
besides  the  gradual  injury  which  the  adjoining  land  sustains,  from 
this  operation  of  the  current  on  the  edge  of  the  banks,  (as  has  been 
explained  in  Sect.  I,)  the  surface  of  the  whole  fields,  thus  situated,  is 
exposed  to  inundation,  when  the  river  is  swollen  by  the  rain,  and  the 
torrents  which  descend  from  the  neighbouring  heights ;  often  sweep- 
ing away  the  crop,  and  deteriorating  the  soil,  by  the  lodging  of  sand 
and  gravel  at  one  place,  and  the  carrying  a>vay  the  mould  at  another. 
A  sudden  and  rapid  flood,  has  also  the  effect  of  changing  the  course 
of  a  river  ;  making  it  abandon  the  old,  and  take  a  new  channel, 
through  part  of  the  ground,  perhaps  more  valuable,  by  its  being  better 
cultivated,  and,  on  that  account,  more  loose,  and  easily  acted  upon 
by  the  current.  In  this  case,  the  loss  is  aggravated,  by  the  old  chan- 
nel being  a  useless  waste,  in  addition  to  the  space  occupied  by  the 
new  course  which  the  water  has  taken. 

Accounts  of  havoc  committed  by  such  inundations,  abound  in  all 
the  county  reports,  and  imperiously  enforce  the  necessity  of  adopting 
measures  to  prevent  them.  From  the  following  detail  of  the  evils 
committed  in  one  district,  a  judgment  may  be  formed,  of  the  general 
loss  sustained  by  the  country :  "  The  haughs  of  Isla,"  says  the  sur- 
veyor of  Perthshire,  "  from  Ruthven  bank  to  the  mouth  of  that  river, 
a  distance  of  ten  miles,  are  exposed  to  inundations,  which  are  great 
and  destructive.  In  the  glens  lying  north  of  the  Stormont,  floods  do 
great  havoc  among  the  hay  and  other  crops.  In  Athol,  at  Bun  ran- 
noch,  in  Glendochart,  and  Glenloehy,  torrents  from  the  mountains 


144  ON  EMBANKMENTS 

swell  the  rivers  so  suddenly,  that  they  spread. far  and  wide,  and,  in 
many  places,  beyond  their  banks,  and  frequently  sweep  oft'  almost 
the  whole  labours  of  the  year.  The  Tay  and  the  Earn,  the  Devon, 
the  Allan,  and  almost  every  river  within  low  banks,  which  takes  its 
course  through  flat  land,  brings  desolation  on  the  finest  fields,  which 
fie  on  its  sides.1"* 

In  the  northern  counties  of  Scotland,  inundations  are  not  so  fre- 
quent as  in  the  southern.  The  reason  is,  that  where  a  channel  is 
rocky,  which  is  the  case  with  most  of  the  highland  rivers,  it  is  gene- 
rally deep,  and  the  river  seldom  overflows  its  banks ;  but  where  the 
intersected  strata  is  of  a  soft  and  gravelly  kind,  as  in  the  low  country, 
the  channel  is  invariably  shallow,  and  quickly  filled. 

The  manner  in  which  inundations  proceed,  deserves  particular  at- 
tention, because  from  observing  this,  we  shall  be  the  better  enabled  to 
discover  the  proper  remedy.  u  When  a  river  swells,"  says  the 
learned  BufTon,  "  its  celerity  uniformly  increases,  till  it  begins  to 
overflow  the  banks.  From  that  moment  its  rapidity  is  checked, 
which  is  the  reason  why  inundations  always  continue  several  days  ; 
for,  though  the  quantity  of  water  should  be  diminished,  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  inundation,  it  would,  notwithstanding,  continue  to 
overflow  5  because  this  circumstance  depends  more  on  the  celerity 
than  the  quantity  of  water.  If  it  were  otherwise,  rivers  would  often 
overflow  their  banks  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  then  retire  to  their  chan- 
nels, which  never  does  happen.  An  inundation,  on  the  contrary, 
always  lasts  some  days,  supposing  the  rains  have  ceased,  and  less 
water  runs  in  the  river,  because  the  overflowing  of  waters  diminishes 
their  celerity;  and,  consequently,  although  the  same  quantity  of  wa- 
ter arrives  not  in  the  same  time  as  formerly,  the  effect  is  the  same,  as 
if  a  larger  quantity  had  been  brought  down." 

Further,  it  may  be  observed  on  the  motions  of  water,  that,  mathe- 
matically speaking,  if  a  river  runs  on  a  bottom  having  an  equal  de- 
scent, the  velocity  of  the  water  will  increase,  the  farther  it  runs. 
Thus,  suppose  the  descent  to  be  one  foot  per  n  He,  after  the  first  mile, 
the  water  will  have  acquired  a  velocity  of  eight  feet  per  second  ;  after 
four  miles,  its  velocity  would  be  sixteen  per  second  ;  and  at  the  end 
of  sixteen  miles,  it  would  run  at  the  rate  of  thirty-two  feet  per  se- 
cond ;  its  velocity,  atAevery  point,  being  the  same  as  would  be  ac- 
quired by  a  body  falling  the  same  perpendicular  height.  These 
rules,  with  regard  to  the  motion  of  rivers,  cannot,  however,  be  so 
accurately  observed,  on  account  of  the  perpetual  obstruction  the  wa- 
ter meets  with  against  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  channel  they  flow 
in,  which  counteract  the  power  of  gravity,  and  reduce  the  water  to  an 
uniform  motion,  where  the  declivity  of  the  bottom  and  sides  are  regu- 
lar. Supposing  a  given  quantity  of  water  is  to  be  carried  off,  the 
smaller  the  descent,  the  width  and  depth,  or  section  of  the  river,  must 
be  the  greater  ;  for  the  water,  running  in  a  large  body,  and  slower, 
meets  with  a  less  proportional  obstruction  from  the  sides  and  bottom. 
Also,  supposing  the  same  quantity  to  be  discharged,  the  larger  the 
body  it  runs  in,  and  the  slower  the  motion,  the  more  liable  its  course 
is  to  be  obstructed  by  stones,  mud,  weeds,  &c. 


IN  SCOTLAND  145 

Larj*e  and  deep  rivers  run  sufficiently  swift,  and  discharge  vast 
quantities  of  water,  with  a  descent  of  one  foot  per  mile. 

Small  rivers  and  large  burns  require  about  two  feet  per  mile. 
Small  burns  scarcely  keep  a  free  course  under  four  feet  per  mile. 

When  a  cut  or  channel,  therefore,  is  to  be  made  for  a  river  or 
stream  of  water,  through  a  tract  of  level  ground,  it  is  preferable  to 
make  it  deeper  at  the  lower  extremity,  in  order  to  give  a  greater  de- 
scent upon  (he  bottom  all  the  way,  than  to  make  a  broad  and  less 
deep  channel  all  the  way  upon  a  less  descent ;  for  the  former  method 
is  attended  with  less  expense  of  digging,  and  better  calculated  to  keep 
an  open  course. 

From  this  explanation,  it  is  obvious,  that  the  leading  principle  of 
all  operations,  to  prevent  a  river  from  overflowing,  should  be,  to  in- 
crease and  preserve  its  celerity. 

For  this  purpose  it  may  be  first  observed,  that  it  is  much  better  to 
deepen,  than  to  widen  a  channel.  A  contrary  advice  is  given  by 
some  writers,*  but,  it  is  apprehended,  without  a  sufficient  attention  to 
circumstances.  If  a  river  were  always  equally  full,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  that  to  widen  its  channel,  would  prove  a  most  effectual  method 
to  confine  it  within  its  banks.  But,  as  the  quantity  of  water  is  con- 
stantly fluctuating,  the  widening  of  the  channel  would  produce  the 
following  bad  effects:  1.  That  when  the  stream  happened  to  be 
small,  it  would  scoop  out  a  winding  bed  for  itself  in  the  middle  of  the 
channel ;  and  upon  swelling,  would  follow  the  direction  of  this  bed, 
and,  thereby,  strike  with  violence  against  the  banks.  2.  That  by- 
lessening  the  depth  of  the  river,  its  celerity  would  be  diminished,  and 
its  liability  to  overflow,  of  course,  increased.  For  it  is  an  establish- 
ed fact,  that  celerity  depends  less  upon  the  declivity  of  the  channel, 
than  upon  the  weight  of  water.  The  importance  of  this  objection  is 
confirmed  by  this  remarkable  fact,  that  when  once  a  river  acquires  a 
great  celerity,  it  will  both  preserve  it  while  running  through  a  level 
country,  and  even  surmount  heights,  without  spreading  much  to  a 
side,  or,  at  least,  without  producing  an  inundation  of  any  moment.f 
3.  That  by  diminishing  the  celerity  of  the  river,  it  would  be  more 
liable  to  be  warped  and  impeded,  as  a  greater  quantity  of  sulliagfc 
would  thus  be  deposited  in  the  channel. 

At  the  same  time,  a  caution  must  be  given  against  carrying  the 
principle,  here  laid  down,  to  an  extreme.  It  is  as  pernicious  to  pen 
a  river  within  too  narrow  bounds,  as  it  is  to  give  it  too  lar^e  an  ex- 
panse. The  width  of  the  channel,  therefore,  should  be  such  as  will 
admit  the  water  to  flow  freely,  and  maintain  a  proper  velocity. 

To  deepen  the  channel  of  a  river,  all  the  means  which  have  been 
recommended  for  defending  banks  from  encroachments,  the  removal 
of  obstructions,  and  the  erection  of  bulwarks  to  prevent  the  stream, 
from  spreading,  will  be  found  extremely  conducive.  In  some  instan- 
ces, these  operations  may  even  preclude  the  necessity  of  embanking. 

Where  rivers  flow  through  a  very  flat  country,  and,  consequently, 
their  current  is  less  rapid,  their  overflowing,  instead  of  being  destruc- 
tive, pften  produces  beneficial  effects,  by  depositing  mud  and  other 

*  Beatsor,  &c.  t  Baff«»  •»  Hirers. 

is 


14$  £N  EMBANKMENTS 

rich  sediment,  which  tends  to  fertilize  the  soil  in  a  very  high  degree. 
Wh^re  this  is  the  case,  embankment  has  a  double  advantage  \  for,  by 
means  of  sluices,  a  portion  of  the  water  can  be  admitted  at  the  upper 
side,  and  retained  at  pleasure  ;  by  which  means,  the  influence  of  its 
effects  can  be  regulated  as  circumstances  require.  Those  large  ri- 
vers, that  flow  through  valleys  of  wide  expanse,  have  always  a 
lengthened  and  crooked  course,  occasioned  by  the  frequent  changes 
that  take  place,  by  floods  acting  against  the  soil  of  which  the  low 
ground  is  composed.  To  make  new  and  straight  channels  for  such 
rivers,  would  be  the  most  effectual  improvement;  but  this,  in  many 
cases,  would  be  attended  with  an  expense,  much  greater  than  the  ad- 
vantages to  be  gained.  In  others,  however,  it  would  be  advisable,  to 
straighten  such  parts  as  are  very  crooked,  where  the  length  of  cutting 
would  be  short,  and  the  expense  moderate  By  this  means,  the 
length  of  embankment  would  be  shortened  and  kept  in  a  straight  line, 
which  is  a  great  desideratum.  Indeed,  the  line  of  embankment 
should  be  kept  as  straight  as  possible,  even  if  the  course  of  the  river 
be  crooked ;  for  it  is  against  the  bends  and  turns,  that  the  water  has 
greatest  weight,  and  is  most  apt  to  burst  the  bank.  The  loss  of  this 
ground,  by  its  being  excluded  from  culture,  is  counterbalanced  by  the 
security  which  it  provides,  in  giving  the  water  more  room,  and,  con- 
sequently, lessening  its  force  and  pressure. 

In  all  smaller  streams,  or  Bums  (as  they  are  called  in  Scotland,) 
Straightening,  widening,  and  deepening  the  channel,  is  the  first  and 
greatest  improvement;  and,  in  many  cases,  these  operations  alone 
may  be  sufficient  to  confine  the  whole  body  of  water  in  a  flood,  and 
so  render  an  embankment,  or  further  defence,  unnecessary.  If  the 
capacity  of  the  channel  is  not  sufficiently  enlaiged  by  these  means, 
the  width  between  the  embankments  will  require  to  be  the  greater, 
and  their  height,  and  breadth  at  the  base,  the  more.  By  examining 
the  flood-marks,  and  measuring  their  height,  that  of  the  embankment 
may  be  ascertained ;  but,  it  should  always  be  raised  from  one  to  two 
feet  higher  than  the  greatest  flood  ;  for  the  materials  of  which  it  may 
be  formed,  subside  considerably,  and  that  according  to  their  height. 
In  general,  it  will  be  found,  that  rivers  which  flow  freely,  and  have 
no  interruption  in  their  course,  even  during  the  greatest  floods,  do 
not  rise  more  than  five  or  six  feet  above  their  ordinary  level ;  so  that, 
in  most  cases,  a  bank  of  six  or  seven  feet  in  elevation,  will  be  per- 
fectly adequate. 

The  slope  of  an  embankment,  should  always  be  greater  towards 
the  river,  than  to  the  land  side,  in  order  to  avoid  that  lateral  pressure, 
which  is  so  destructive,  when  the  bank  is  formed  too  upright.  The 
sloping  of  the  bank  is  of  great  use,  in  rendering  it  firm  and  secure; 
as  it  makes  the  resistance  indirect,  and,  of  course,  lessens  the  pres- 
sure of  the  stream.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Tay,  between  Errol 
and  Invergowrie,  there  are  some  old  embankments  of  stone,  which 
lise  nearly  in  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  water.  From  being  built 
in  this  injudicious  manner,  they  have  been  found  so  insufficient,  that 
it  has  been  necesssry  to  erect  piers  or  juttees,  to  protect  them  frorra 
the  violence  of  the  current. 


JN  SCOTLAND,  14# 

The  base  of  an  embankment,  should  be  three  times  the  breadth  of 
its  height  ;  and  its  width  at  top,  should  be  one-third  of  that  height, 
The  line  of  embankment,  should  be  kept  at  a  proper  distance 
from  the  edge  of  the  river  bank ;  and  the  stuff  of  which  it  is 
formed,  should  all  be  taken  from  the  land-side,  to  prevent  break- 
ing and  loosening  th^  surface  on  that  next  the  river,  which  would 
expose  it  to  encroachment  from  the  current  If  th*jre  be  any 
heights  in  the  fields  adjoining,  within  a  short  distance,  the  earth 
may  be  partly  taken  from  these,  and  from  the  cut  that  may  be 
necessary  at  the  back  of  the  embankment,  for  receiving  the  sur- 
face water  from  the  fields.  The  earth  from  this  cut,  should  be  re- 
moved with  a  gradual  slope  backwards,  so  as  to  give  an  easy  descent 
from  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  All  trees  and  brush- 
wood, should  be  removed  from  the  space  betwixt  the  embankment 
and  the  stream,  to  give*  no  interruption  to  the  current,  or  to  throw  the 
force  of  the  water  against  the  mound.  Any  tree  or  bush,  in  thr  line 
of  the  bank,  should  be  removed  by  the  root ;  otherwise,  it  may  shake 
and  keep  the  mound  loose  at  that  place,  and  give  admission  to  the 
water,  A  wooden  frame,  of  the  exact  shape  and  size  of  the  bank, 
should  be  made,  that  the  workmen  may  execute  it  with  accuracy ; 
for  it  is  of  consequence  to  have  the  mound  formed  regularly,  and  as 
even  and  smooth  as  possible,  that  the  water  may  meet  with  no  ob- 
struction, nor  take  hold  of  any  inequality  on  the  surface  of  the  side 
next  it.  In  constructing  the  bank  the  earth  should  b<  well  trampled 
and  beaten  down  with  heavy  mallets,  and  that  part  of  it  of  the  firm- 
est consistence,  should  be  u^ed  on  the  side  next  the  river.  That  side, 
should  be  faced  with  well-swarded  turf,  as  soon  as  the  slope  is  finish- 
ed. It  may  be  necessary  to  pin  down  the  lowermost  layers  of  turf, 
and  to  water  them,  (if  a  dry  season,)  that  they  may  adhere  the  more 
firmly,  and  prevent  the  grass  from  decay.  The  side  next  the  field, 
may  be  sown  with  grass-seeds,  and  these  may  also  be  thrown  upon 
the  other  side,  to  close  the  interstices  between  the  turfs,  and  to  thick- 
en the  sward. 

In  executing  an  embankment,  it  should  always  be  begun  at  the  up- 
per end,  and  proceeded  with  downwards  ;  finishing,  if  possible,  the 
portion  of  work  for  the  day,  in  case  of  any  sudden  swell  of  the  river 
injuring  it,  if  left  irregular  and  not  completed..  It  is  not  necessary,  to 
found  the  bank  any  lower  tlun  the  adjoining  surface  ;  the  turf  only 
may  be  taken  off,  which  will  be  useful  in  covering  the  slope,  and  the 
earth  will  unite  more  readily  than  it  would  do  otherwise.  A  scarce- 
merit  of  two  01  three  feet,  must  be  left  between  the  edge  of  the  em- 
bankment, and  the  trench  that  is  cut  along  the  back  of  it.  A  paling 
should  be  erected  along  the  inner  side  of  the  scarcement,  to  prevent 
cattle  from  going  up.,  trampling  upon,  and  breaking  down  the  bank, 
till  it  be  fully  consolidated,  and  swarded  with  grass. 

Embankments  are  usually  executed  by  contract,  and  may  cost 
from  fourpence  to  sixpence  the  cubic  yard.  The  contractor,  for  the 
sake  of  greater  security  in  the  execution  of  the  work,  should  be  bound 
to  uphold  it  for  the  first  two  years. 

All  the  water  that  may  collect  in  the  fields  adjoining,  should  only 
have  one  outlet  through  the  embankment  to  the  river,  at  the  lowest 


14$  ON  EMBANKMENTS,  &C. 

point,  and  that,  by  a  pipe  or  square  box  of  wood,  with  a  valve  or  ticl, 
fixed  to  the  mouth  of  it  by  hinges  on  the  upper  side.  The  valve  ill 
shut  in  floods,  to  exclude  the  river,  and  the  pressure  of  the  land  water 
will  open  it  when  the  flood  subsides.    I 

It  is  improper  to  sow  or  plant  any  tree,  hedge,  or  shrub  that  takes 
deep  root,  or  grows  to  any  height,  on  the  sides,  or  top  of  the  embank- 
ment ;  for  by  these,  the  earth  would  be  loosened,  the  water  admitted, 
and  the  mound  shaken  and  carried  away.  If  the  seeds  of  rushes, 
flags,  or  tussilago  be  sown,  these  will  bind  the  surface,  and  "prevent 
the  water  from  making  impression  upon  it. 

Holes  made  by  moles  or  mice,  are  also  dangerous,  on  account  of 
their  admitting  the  water  into  the  bank,  and  should,  therefore,  be  im- 
mediately closed  up. 

Lastly,  when  the  smallest  breach  appears,  it  should  be  instantly 
remedied  ;  for,  if  the  water  once  takes  hold  o(  a  broken  space,  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  stop  its  progress.  For  these  purposes,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  make  a  frequent  inspection,  where  works  of  this  kind  are 
on  an  extensive  scale. 

On  the  river  Spey  in  Badenoch,  the  meadows  on  the  estates  of 
Belville  and  Inverishie,  that  were  formerly  overflowed  and  inundated 
by  every  flood,  are  now  embanked  in  the  most  complete  and  secure 
manner,  according  to  the  description  that  has  just  been  given; 
whereby  above  a  thousand  acres  of  land,  are  now  rendered  safe  and 
productive.  On  the  Gordon  and  Findlater  estates,  much  might  be 
done  in  the  same  way.  On  the  Forth,  Tay,  Don,  Beauly,  Nith,  (  ar- 
ron,  Earn,  Isla,  South  Esk,  &c.  a  great  deal  of  land  has  been  also 
embanked  in  an  effectual  manner ;  and  on  these,  as  well  as  many 
other  rivers  in  Scotland,  the  extent  of  land  that  might  be  preserved 
and  improved  by  this  means,  would  amount  to  many  thousand  acres. 


[For  further  explanation,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  plates  accompanyiug 
the  2d  vol.  of  Sir  J.  Sinclair's  Agricultural  Report.] 


CULTIVATION  OF  RICE.  149 

MEMOIR 
On  the 'Cultivation  of  Rice  in  India, 

By   Monsieur  Logaux  de  Flaix. 
Translated  by  Wm.  Washington. 


J.  O  prepare  the  land  well,  is  the  first  axiom  in  Agriculture;  to 
make  the  best  preparation  possible,  for  the  reception  of  the  seed,  is 
the  constant  study  and  rare  of  the  Hindoo- Agriculturist.  The  first 
preparation  is,  to  extirpate  and  burn  all  the  weeds  and  remains  of  the 
last  year's  crop.  These  agriculturists  are  fully  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  burning  all  the  vegetables  found  on  the  ground.  This 
is  what  they  deem  a  renewal  of  the  earth.  In  effect,  the  fire,  accord- 
ing to  the  Hindoos,  is  useful,  not  only  in  destroying,  without  great 
trouble,  the  roots  of  herbs  and  plants,  but  it  is  acknowledged,  that 
the  action  of  this  element  so  enriches  the  earth,  as  to  render  it  unne- 
cessary, either  to  manure  or  to  leave  the  land  fallow,  and  that  it  de- 
stroys insects.  Besides,  these  cultivators  know,  by  long  experience,, 
that  the  ashes  of  plants  contribute  with  water,  to  fertilize  land. 

It  is  to  this  constant  practice,  that  we  are  to  attribute  the  little  la- 
bour which  the  rice  fields  require,  as  well  as  their  other  fields. 

These  cultivators,  who  may  be  justly  entitled  the  eldest  of  the  hu- 
man family,  and  the  first  agriculturists  of  the  world,  have  equally  re- 
cognized the  good  effects  of  scattering  salt  over  their  land,  or  mois- 
tening it,  when  planted,  with  sea-water.  This  salutary  practice  is 
expiessly  recommended  by  these  cultivators,  as  calculated  to  increase 
the  product  of  the  crop.  This  process  is  generally  followed  in  that 
vast  region  of  the  world,  which  we  call  the  East-Indies. 

Mr.  Cossigny,  in  speaking  of  the  Chinese  cultivation,  says,  he  has 
seen  the  Chinese  flow  their  fields,  with  salted  water  taken  in  at  flood 
tide.  I  will  allow,  that  salt,  by  its  caustic  quality,  is  prejudicial  to 
some  plants ;  but  this  is  only  when  employed  in  too  great  quantities, 
or  when  it  cannot  be  tempered  by  natural  or  artificial  irrigations, 
more  or  less  frequent,  according  to  circumstances,  such  as  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  climate,  the  nature  of  the  cultivation,  that  of  the  plants, 
and  the  quality  of  the  earth.  But,  I  will  observe,  that  salt  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  the  culture  of  rice,  particularly  when  it  grows 
in  such  fields  as  can  be  inundated. 

The  experience  of  twenty  years,  during  which  time  I  resided  in 
India,  enables  me  to  speak  positively.  After  having  burnt  all  the 
weeds  and  trash,  and  salted  the  land  they  commence  putting  the 
land  in  order,  by  working  it.    I  think  it  here  necessary  to  observe^ 


150  ON  THE  CULTIVATION 

that  the  Hindoos  do  not  attach  any  very  favourable  ideas  to  deep 
digging ;  faithful  to  this  principle,  they  never  turn  their  ground  to  a 
greater  depth  than  four  or  five  inches.  They  look  to  the  water  for 
the  success  of  their  cultivation;  and  their  hopes  are  well-founded. 
The  fields  are  divided  into  squares  or  parrallelograms,  and  ploughed 
and  harrowed.  The  rice  is  then  sown,  broadcast.  Theriede-^ 
signed  for  seed,  ought  to  be  well  soaked,  so  that  the  weight  of  the 
grain  might  sink  it  in  the  ground,  for  the  field  should  be  inundated  to 
the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  They  keep  the  water  on,  renewing 
it  at  pleasure,  according:  to  the  dryness  of  the  weather. 

The  Hindoos  are  the  best  cultivators  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East-Indies.  Their  constant  usage  is,  to  soak  all  their  grain  for  seed 
in  a  strong  brine,  for  the  space  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  hours,  in  order 
that  it  might  germinate  quickly.  The  rice,  thus  soaked,  germinates 
on  the  second  day.  This  practice,  I  believe,  to  be  very  useful  for 
all  grain.  The  rice  is  taken  up  and  transplanted  from  the  fifteenth, 
or  at  least,  the  twentieth  day,  and  is  cut  twenty-four  hours  before  it 
is  taken  from  the  seed-bed-. 

In  Piedmont  and  Milan,  this^transplantation  takes  place  too  late. 
This  tardiness  is  injurious  to  the  vegetation  and  production  of  rice; 
the  stalks  are  then  seven  or  eight  inches  high.  1  think  it  important 
to  remark,  that  rice,  when  transplanted*  produces  much  more  than 
when  left  to  grow  in  the  same  field  where  it  was  planted. 

A  crowd  of  experiments  prove  this  assertion  ;  and  I  will  here  re- 
mark, that  having  a  second  re-planting  after  the  transplantation,  I 
produced  more  than  a  fourth  beyond  the  usual  product.  But,  this 
advantage  is  illusory  ;  the  rice  is  not  so  good,  and  it  does  not  pay  for 
the  trouble.  Before  transplantation,  the  land  should  be  watered  sev- 
eral days,  and  the  rice  left  in  small  tufts  of  three  or  four  stalks  toge- 
ther, about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart. 

One  curious  circumstance  concerning  rice,  is  the  rapid  growth  of 
its  stalks,  elonga'ting  themselves  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the 
water.  This  vegetation  is  so  rapid,  as  to  be  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
a  night ;  but  the  product  is  not  so  good  as  ordinary.  Except  die 
irrigation  which  the  rice  requires  every  three  or  four  days,  and  some- 
times oftener  in  very  hot  weather,  this  cultivation  demands  no  labour 
whatever,  ever}'  thing  being  then  left  to  nature  ;  an  advantage  arising 
from  the  preparation  of  the  land,  all  the  seeds  of  grain,  parasitic 
plants,  or  bad  weeds,  being  removed. 

The  Hindoo  cultivators  use  much  less  seed,  whether  of  rice,  or  any 
other  grain,  than  they  do  in  Europe.  It  is  a  fact,  that  ten  or  twelve 
pounds  of  rice,  furnished  a  biga  of  land  ;  whereas  in  Piedmont,  they 
take  fifty  pounds  to  a  smaller  extent  of  ground.  The  rice  remains  on 
the  ground  three  or  four  months. 

Harvest. — Inventors  of  all  the  sciences  and  arts,  the  Hindoos  have 
made  precious  and  exact  observations  on  Agriculture,  the  first  and 
most  useful  of  all  arts.  They  are  in  the  practice  of  changing  the 
water  of  the  rice  field,  as  soon  as  the  flower  of  the  plant  is  passed,  as 

*  Sir  John  Sinclair  makes  the  same  remark  respecting  all  drilled  grain  crops. 
—"(Sit  Code  of  Agriculture.) 


€>F  RICE  IN  INDIA.  151 

soon  as  its  silver  colour  is  changed  to  that  of  the  star  of  day,  which 
they  revere  and  call  the  father  of  the  harvest  and  of  life.  Every  day 
after  that  epoch,  they  diminish  gradually  the  water,  and  renew  it  as 
soon  as  the  grain  is  formed,  so  that  the  stagnant  water  can  run  ofl 
before  the  plant  is  entirely  dry.  It  is  by  this  wise  plan,  that  the  ma- 
turity of  the  grain  is  accelerated,  and  the  straw  prevented  from  rot- 
ting. With  the  reaping  hook  it  is  harvested  four  or  five  inches  below 
the  panicle  or  ear;  the  rest  of  the  stalk  is  left  to  vegetate.  Ten  or 
fifteen  days  after  this,  the  straw  is  harvested  for  cattle. 

Rice,  in  India,  is  not  subject  to  any  kind  of  malady,  neither  whilst 
growing,  or  after  harvest.  Allowing  it  to  remain  in  the  rough,  it 
can  be  preserved  ten,  twenty,  or  even  fifty  years.  Indeed  I  have 
heard  it  said,  it  has  been  prese  ved  for  a  century. 

Rice,  by  its  excellent  and  nutritive  quality,  is  the  favourite  nourish- 
ment of  more  than  half  the  globe.  The  Hindoos  prefer  it  to  any 
other  kind  of  food.  It  is  the  cause  of  the  innumerable  population  of 
that  part  of  the  globe.  But  the  rice  which  the  Hindoos  eat,  is  differ- 
ently prepared  from  that  in  Europe.  They  cook  it  in  the  rough, 
before  it  is  cleaned,  under  the  impression  that  it  is  more  wholesome, 
and  of  a  better  taste  ;  and  I  think  they  are  in  the  right.  To  prepare 
it  in  this  way,  after  having  fanned  it,  they  throw  it  into  a  pot  of  boil- 
ing water,  and  it  is  taken  out  as  soon  as  the  water  recovers  its  ebulli- 
tion, and  left  to  drain  until  it  becomes  quite  dry.  In  this  state  it  is 
passed  into  a  hand-mill,  where  the  upper  stone  is  very  light,  or 
pounded  with  a  wooden  pestle,  to  take  off  the  husk.  This  work  is 
done  by  females,  placed  opposite  to  each  other ;  they  turn  the  mill, 
or  beat  the  rice,  which  is  fanned  frequently,  until  the  husk  is  gone  ; 
this  rice,  thus  prepared,  serves  for  a  bread  which  the  Hindoos  call 
ape,  and  different  kinds  of  pastry. 

The  Hindoos,  who  follow  simplicity  in  all  their  machinery,  clean 
their  rice  by  means  of  a  simple  machine,  easily  wrought  and  econo- 
mical. The  mill  is  wrought  sometimes  by  two,  and  other  times,  by 
four  men.  It  cleans,  in  one  day,  with  the  aid  of  two  men,  two  hun- 
dred kilogrames,  equal  to  five  hundred  quintals;  it  does  not  break 
the  grain  as  the  machines  do,  which  are  used  in  Europe  for  the  same 
purpose.  [Here  follows  the  description,  accompanied  by  a  plate, .] 
The  chaff  is  used  in  feeding  cattle,  but  it  is  mostly  used  in  forges, 
where  it  is  of  the  greatest  utility.  It  is  used  to  accelerate  the  fusion 
€>f  metals,  in  the  same  way  as  borax  and  resin  act  upon  gold  and  sil- 
ver ;  mixed  with  charcoal,  it  gives  an  astonishing  activity  and  inten- 
sity to  the  fire,  containing  a  great  deal  of  inflammable  oil ;  it  pene- 
trates and  softens  metals,  calcines  the  earthy  and  heterogeneous 
parts,  and  contributes  to  their  malleability. 

Rice  is,  generally,  cultivated  in  such  fields  as  can  be  watered,  it 
being  the  most  preferable  mode.  There  is,  therefore,  only  one  va- 
riety, which  is  cultivated  on  dry  land  ;  this  is  called  grondeli.  This 
variety  requires  less  water  than  any  other ;  it  is  soaked  in  strong 
brine  for  thirty  hours,  before  it  is  planted.  The  Hindoos  never  fail 
to  irrigate  r^eir  Innds,  and  it  is  to  this  method  that  they  owe  their 
rich  and  abundant  crops. 


152  ON  THE  CULTIVATION 

Rice  is  a  light  and  wholesome  food,  better  fitted  for  invalids  than 
wheat ;  it  is  so  easily  prepared,  that  in  less  than  three  hours,  it  can 
be  cleaned,  cooked,  and  served  upin  sufficient  quantities  for  a  whole 
company  of  grenadiers.  Rice,  when  parched,  detaches  itself  from 
the  chaff  by  the  action  of  the  fire ;  in  this  state,  the  grains  swell  and 
resemble  flower,  which  are  white  within,  and  reddish  without  It  is 
called  by  the  Hindoos  pari,  and  is  given  to  children  as  we  give  them 
bons  or  sugar-plumbs ;  it  is  also  yerv  useful  in  diseases  generally, 
and  particularly  bowel  complaints 

Rice  is  so  much  easier  transported,  and  also  safer  than  bread,  that 
it  becomes  a  precious  aliment  for  soldiers  and  sailors.  The  habitual 
usage  of  the  Hindoo  is,  to  prepare  a  kind  of  bouillon  drink  of  rice- 
water,  which  they  call  cange,  which  is  very  nourishing.  This  rice- 
water  or  cange,  also  serves  as  a  menstrum  for  the  composition  of  in- 
delible ink,  which  retains  its  colour  for  ages  ;  it  is  also  employed  in 
the  fabrication  of  gunpowder.  The  charcoal  moistened  with  this 
bouillon,  becomes  stronger  and  more  easily  ignited.  A  fact  of  which, 
I  am  convinced  by  many  trials  with  this  bouilion.  The  Hindoo 
weavers  prepare  the  chains  of  such  stulls,  whether  silk  or  cotton,  as 
they  have  to  weave  ;  it  starches  the  threads  better,  and  m.re  econo- 
mically than  the  paste  which  is  used  in  Europe.  It  is  acknowledged, 
that  rice-water  is  superior  to  starch.  This  cange  is  used  in  Italy,  to 
prepare  their  laces  and  silks. 


ON  PLAINS  OF  TUSC\NT. 


FfROM  SIMONDE's   AGRICULTURE   OF  TUSCAHy.} 


% 

The  Plains  of  Tuscany* 


15S 


E^ 


I  VF.RY  traveller  in  Italy,  must  be  struck  with  the  appearance  of 
its  plains,  which  are  very  liitle  like  those  of  Champagne,  or  the  other 
parts  of  France,  and  in  which  one  perceives,  instantaneously,  the 
effect  of  water  and  its  depositions,  in  the  muddy  sediment  of  a  lake, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  hollow  of  a  mountain  in  whirh  that  sediment  is  con- 
tained. The  waters  that  formed  the  lake,  have  opened  to  themselves  a 
channel,  through  which  they  have  disappeared  ;  but  the  mud  or  slime 
deposited  by  then  during  a  period  of  ages,  remains  a  smooth  and  uni- 
form surface,  exhibiting,  manifestly,  the  f  rmer  presence  of  the  water. 
It  is  not  very  long  since  the  plain  of  Persia,  eleven  or  twelve  mi'es 
loner,  and  seven  or  eight  miles  wide,  underwent  this  revolution  ;  the 
waters  of  a  marsh  or  swamp  extended,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to  the 
very  gates  of  the  town,  and  filled  this  fertile  basin.  By  degrees  it 
was  drained,  and  a  finishing  hand  was  put  by  Peter  Leopold,  to  this 
conquest  of  its  waves :  he  opened  a  drain  to  the  marshes  of  Fucec- 
chio,  which  his  predecessors  had  closed  for  the  sake  of  establishing  a 
fishery     * 

This  deposit*  of  mud  in  the  plain,  has  created  a  fertility  that  cannot 
be  described.  Its  uniform  depth  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet :  be- 
neath which  is  a  layer  of  gravel  or  quick  sand,  impregnated  with  wa- 
ter to  such  a  degree,  as  makes  it  imp'-ssible  to  keep  it  long  fronj 
springing  up :  it  is,  therefore,  very  difficult  and  expensive  to  lav  the 
foundations  of  any  building  This  soil  i  of  a  greyish-yellow,  li^ht, 
friable,  not  gritty,  but  easily  mixed  vith  water,  and  not  separable 
therefrom  without  difficulty.  This  quality,  added  to  its  fertility,  has 
obtained  for  it  among  the  natives  of  that  district,  the  name  of  terra 
grass'f — rich  mould. 

Some  of  these  rich  spots,  however,  are  not  productive,  and  the  de- 
fect arises  from  another  characteristic  of  these  plains  of  Italy — that 
of  being  always  below  the  level  of  the  rivers  by  which  they  are  over- 

*  It  is  a  little  singular  that  this  word,  whether  as  a  substantive  or  verb*  is  not 
to  be  found  in  any  good  dictionary ;  but  custom  sanctions  it. 

20 


154  ON  PLAINS  OF  TUSCANY. 

flowed,  and  which  are  confined,  and,  as  it  were,  suspended  between 
very  high  banks.  As  soon  as  the  traveller  discovers  a  knoll  planted 
with  tall  poplars,  he  may  be  assured,  that  he  has  -a  river  before  him. 
The  bank  of  the  Pescia  of  Collodi,  is  higher  than  the  highest  neigh- 
bouring houses ;  yet,  on  the  side  of  the  river,  it  is  scarcely  ten  feet 
above  the  river's  bed  The  banks  of  the  Arno,  in  the  approach  to 
Pisa,  are  elevated  in  a  very  different  degree.  As  the  sea  of  Tuscany 
is,  of  itself,  too  high  to  receive  the  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into  it, 
particularly  during  the  prevalence  of  a  south  wind,  which  drives  them 
back,  it  has  been  found  necessary. to  raise  very  high  embankments  on 
these  rivers,  to  prevent  their  overflowing  the  adjacent  country,  when 
they  cannot  be  discharged  into  the  sea  Subsequently,  it  has  be- 
come necessary  to  raise  these  banks  from  time  to  time,  either  because 
the  sediment  deposited  by  the  river,  elevates  its  bed,  or  because  the 
Mediterranean  sea  appears  to  gain  a  higher  level,  so  as  to  threaten,  at 
some  future  period,  a  general  inundation  of  the  plains  of  Italy,  some 
of  the  richest  of  which  are  below  its  level  It  has  also  become  ne- 
cessary, to  restrain  by  a  canal,  all  the  rivers  that  empty  themselves 
into  the  Arno  and  the  Serchio,  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  their  de- 
scent, so  as  to  admit  of  their  being  received  into  these  streams.  Even 
the  lakes  are  surrounded  by  high  banks  ;  and,  notwithstanding  their 
immensity  and  solidity,  when  ruins  are  too  abundant,  or  the  course  of 
the  rivers  opposed  by  a  south  wind,  these  banks  give  way,  inundate 
the  plain  for  many  miles,  and  are  the  more  destructive,  because  their 
waters,  in  spite  of  every  attempt  to  give  them  vent,  find  no  outlet, 
either  into  the  rivers  or  the  sea. 

But,  these  inundations  are  not  the  only  damage  that  these  waters 
occasion  in  the  plains  of  Tuscany  ;  for,  as  the  level  of  the  waters  is 
always  above  that  of  the  plains,  these  waters  penetrate  through  all  the 
banks,  resist  whatever  is  opposed  to  them,  and,  in  spite  of  the  efforts 
of  industry,  render  marshy  and  unproductive  grounds  that  seem  cal- 
culated by  nature,  to  be  eminently  fertile.  In  soils  moistened,  or,  as 
the  Tuscans  say,  chilled  by  this  leakage  of  the  banks,  the  vines  and 
mulberry  trees,  after  yielding,  for  several  successive  years,  fruits  ot  a 
saltish  taste,  are  attacked  by  rot.  and  soon  perish.  Corn,  too,  either 
rots  in  the  earth,  or  soon  after  it  has  sprung  up ;  a  casualty  which  oc- 
curs in  all  low  lands,  and.  in  most  seasons,  defeats  all  the  planter's 
efforts,  if,  after  abandoning  the  seed  sown  in  autumn,  recourse  is 
bad  to  another  planting  in  spring,  he  is  not  more  fortunate,  the  effect 
of  so  much  moisture  is  agrain  felt  in  the  vitiated  flavour  of  the  produce 
of  the  soil,  so  as  to  nake  it  unfit  for  feeding  even  the  cattle  ;  nothing, 
therefore,  remains,  but  to  aoandon  fields  from  which  the  owner  can 
receive  no  return. 


ON  PLAINS  OF  TUSCANY.  165 


The  Combletsy*  or  Warping. 

Arthur  Young,  while  travelling  in  Italy,  heard  of  the  Colmate  or 
fktmbl&s,  the  onty  known  method  of  restoring  the  fertility  of  land 
rendered  cold  and  swampy  by  water.  It  is  probable,  that  finding 
this  process  inapplicable  to  the  agriculture  of  England,  he  paid  little 
attention  to  it ;  at  least,  the  account  he  gives  of  it  is  altogether  erro- 
neous. The  Combkis  are,  however,  the  greatest  and  noblest  of  all 
the  results  of  agricultural  science. 

T!ie  rains  of  Italy  are  so  violent,  that  they  wash  away  the  soil  of 
the  mountains ;  waste  and  dissolve  the  schistus  which  forms  the  nu- 
cleus of  that  soil ;  and  swell  up  the  rivers  with  a  fertile  sediment* 
These  rivers,  which,  generally,  resemble  a  small  stream  of  water  in 
an  immense  plain  of  gravel,  become,  after  a  heavy  rain,  immense  tor- 
rents of  mud.  They  soon  spread  themselves  over  beds  that  do  not 
seem  made  for  them,  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  and  press  violently 
against  banks  that  a  traveller  would  suppose  useless  or  unnecessarily 
strong.  This  muddy  deposit  (limon)  too  commonly  disregarded  and 
lost,  is  carried  to  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  where  it  accumulates,  in 
such  masses  as  nearly  to  prevent  all  discharge  of  the  rivers  into  the 
sea.  How  noble,  then,  was  the  idea  of  forcing  these  rivers  to  depo- 
sit on  the  plains  they  had  overflowed,  the  sediment  that  impeded  their 
course,  and  thus  to  repair  the  ravages  they  had  committed  !  It 
appeared  practicable  to  surround  these  moist  grounds  with  banks  rais- 
ed upon  their  surface,  similar  t  >  those  by  which  all  the  rivers  of  Italy 
are.  inclosed  ;  to  admit  the  river  through  an  opening  in  the  upper 
part  of  its  bed,  so  that,  where  it  was  most  highly  charged  with  mud, 
it  might  make  its  way  into  the  inclosure  prepared  for  it,  form  a  sort 
of  lake  there,  and  deposit  on  the  soil  all  that  sediment  with  which  its 
waters  abounded.  When  the  waters  became  clear  in  consequence  of 
this  deposit  of  sediment,  and  the  river  was  nearly  dry,  its  channel 
was  opened  from  below,  and  the  clear  water  thus  suffered  to  escape. 
Three  or  four  inches  of  this  slime  is  sometimes  deposited  in  one  ex- 
periment ;  the  operation  is  repeated  as  often  as  possible  in  the  course 
of  the  year,  and  continued  for  several  successive  years  ;  at  the  end 
of  which,  the  land  is  almost  always  sufficiently  raised  to  prevent  the 
river,  even  in  a  time  of  inundation,  from  overflowing  this  spot,  or,  at 
least,  from  forcing  into  it  so  much  water,  as  would  make  it  worth 
while  to  recur  to  the  procers*  of  deposition.'!"  It  is,  by  this  time,  ren- 
dered useless,  as  well  as  impossible,  to  continue  it.  As  soon  as  the 
plain  is  thus  elevated  above  the  ordinary  bed  of  the  river,  the  latter, 
instead  of  rendering  the  soil  humid,  serves  as  a  drain  for  it.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  thus  artificially  created,  is  almost  incredible  A, 
spot  in  my  neighbourhood,  sown  for  the  first  time  about  two  years 

*  A  word  not  found  in  any  French  dictionary. 

t  The  word  deposition,  in  this  sense,  however  common  and  eyea  necessary, 
jbas  no  place  in  any  English  dictionary  of  authority. 


156  £N  PLAINS  OF  TUSCANY. 

ago,  yielded  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  measures  of  grain  for  every 
five  measures  of  seed,   twenty  five  for  one.) 

In  order  to  make  a  comble*,  ( or  fictitious  soil  of  this  sort")  it  is  ne- 
fiecessary  to  be  near  a  river,  of  which  the  slime  or  deposit  is  of  a  fer- 
tilizing nature,  tor  some  rivers  deposit  gravel  only,  or  sand  It  is  ne* 
ce.^sary,  too.  that  the  river  have  a  sufficient  descent,  or  that  it  extend 
sufficiently  along  the  adjoining  lands,  to  be  capable  cf  receiving,  by  a 
Iow«  r  sluice,  the  water  taken  in  through  an  upper.  It  is  further  ne- 
cessarv,  that  the  undertaker  of  this  mode  of  fertilization  be  possessed 
of  energy,  industry,  and  great  capital.  The  bank  that  incloses  the 
comblee  last  made  by  the  Vjarquis  Ferroni,  near  Pellavista,  has  a  cir- 
cuit of  nearly  three  miles.  Its  breadth  is  such  as  that  the  road 
around  the  "  mbJet  passes  <  ver  the  summit  of  the  embankments,  and 
has  on  each  side  a  border  of  poplar  trees  When  the  comblee  is  ter- 
minated, this  embankment  will  be  suffered  to  remain  for  the  purpose 
of  furnishing  carpenters'  stuff.  It  is  true,  th-=t  there  is  no  necessity 
for  proceeding  on  so  large  a  scale,  and,  perhaps,  several  small  ^clo- 
sures may  be  preferable  to  a  single  large  one.  The  bank  of  a  large 
comblee  is  proportionally  less  long,  because  the  relation  of  the  cow- 
tour  to  the  surface,  is  regulated  by  the  breadth  of  the  latter.  On  the 
Contrary,  in  the  smaller  comblee 8,  the  banks  require  less  height  and 
less  depth  ;  the  volume  of  water  to  be  sustained  by  them,  being  less 
considerable. 

The  finest  comblees  of  Tuscany  are  those  of  the  Val  di  Chiana, 
which  have  rendered  this  marshy  district  the  most  fertile  of  the  whole 
State.  These  were  undertaken  by  the  Knights  of  St  Etienne.  Se- 
condly, those  { the  comblees)  of  the  plain  of  Pisa,  the  work  of  a  con- 
vent of  the  Chartreux,  or  rather  of  their  steward  or  overseer,  who, 
from  the  power  he  has  thus  created  over  the  waters,  has  obtained  the 
name  of  Neptune.  Thirdly,  those  of  the  Marquis  Ferroni,  in  thf* 
Val  de  JNievoli,  near  the  marsh  of  Fucecchio. 


Method  of  Watering,  (Arrosemens.) 

Hydraulics  and  agriculture  are,  in  Italy,  very  closely  connected. 
Recourse  has  been  had  to  all  possible  means  of  draining  such  lards 
as  have  no  natural  descent  or  slope  ;  of  hindering  overflow  by  rivers3 
of  "'uch  the  mouths  appeared  to  be  higher  than  the  intermediate 
parts  of  their  course  ;  of  draining  marshes  situate  below  the  level  of 
the  adjoining  waters:  lastly,  of  compelling  rivers  to  raise  the  soil  of 
lands  that  they  would,  otherwise,  make  wholly  worthless.  But  the 
Italians  have  displayed  equal  industry  and  sagacity  in  their  manage- 
ment of  these  waters,  for  the  purpose  of  watering  the  adjoining  lands. 
The  art  of  restraining  and  directing  them  at  pleasure  ;  the  immense 
expense  and  prodigious  labour  employed  on  this  object;  and  the  ad- 
vantage taken  of  the  slope  in  the  surface  of  the  land,  have  been  car- 
Tie  1  by  them  to  a  degree  of  perfection,  that  strangers  cannot  too  muck 
admire. 


ON  PLATNS  OF  TUSCANY.  157 

To  watPf  the-lands,  it  is  necessary  to  open  two  large  canals,  which 
bran*  h  cut  into  an  infinity  of  small  ones.  The  channel  <jf  admission 
(is  iiin  lagma  receives  the  river-water  at  the  most  elevated 
Sb<  i  <<  nducts  them  with  the  least  possible  inclination;  keeps  them 
elevated  considerably  above  the  river,  and  causes  them  to  produce 
the  irrigation  necessary  to  fertility  The  channel  of  discharge,  lo 
Acolo,  dug  below  the  level  of  the  high  grounds,  receives  all  the  super- 
fluous water,  as -well  from  rain  as  from  the  artificial  supply  ;  prevents 
its  stagnating  on  the  land,  and  re-conveys  them  to  the  river  at  the 
lowest  point  of  its  bed.  The  great  nicety  of  watering,  ■  onsists  in 
keeping  the  water  first  admitted,  as>  high  as  the  le  el  of  that  part  of 
the  river  will  permit,  anrj  to  excavate  the  channel  of  discharge  in 
su:h  a  way,  as  to  leave  such  an  inclination  as  will  prevent  stagnation, 
ana  admit  of  its  falling  again  into  the  stream  from  which  it  was  first 
taken.  This  caution  is  necessary,  because  the  slope  of  the  plain  is 
so  trifling,  that  it  must  be  strictly  economised,  anu  no  part  of  it  lost. 

To  effect  the  greatest  possible  difference  between  the  elevated 
point  of  the  river  where  the  water  is  admitted,  and  the  lower  point 
where  it  is  discharged,  the  channel  of  admission  is  frequently  opened 
at  some  spot  in  the  mountain,  where  the  declivity  of  the  river  is  con- 
siderable. •'  In  the  canal  of  Pescia,  the  opening  made  is  at  a  height 
©f  six  miles  above  the  plain  ;  along  the  whole  of  this  course,  the  wa- 
ter advances  in  the  gora*  very  much  above  the  level  of  the  valley  that 
that  is  to  be  irrigated.  It  is  true,  that  the  expense  necessary  to  effect 
this  great  elevation  of  the  water,  is  not  solely  with  a  view  to  agricul- 
tural purposes.  The  gora  has  been  thus  elevated,  in  order  to  foi  m  u 
succession  of  falls,  each  of  which  works  a  water-mill.  The  stream 
intended  to  water  the  plain  of  Pescia,  serves,  before  it  reaches  that 
spot,  to  turn  upwards  of  twenty  paper-mills,  many  corn-mills,  oil- 
mils,  and  silk-mills — so  that  the  last  fall,  below  the  town,  brings  them 
to  a  level  with  the  bed  of  the  river  at  that  spot." 

1  he  works  necessary  for  conducting  the  canal  half-mountain  high? 
are  very  great.  The  declivity  is  sometimes  so  great,  as  to  make  \t 
necessary,  not  only  to  form  a  channel  of  brick-work,  instead  of  ex- 
cavating it  on  the  mountain's  surface ;  but,  also,  to  supoort  this  by 
a  wall  which,  for  a  distance  of  two  hundred  yards,  is  at  least  twenty 
feet  high.  In  another  part,  the  canal  is  supported  by  arcades,  ten  or 
twelve  feet  above  the  ground,  like  a  Roman  aqueduct.  These  noble 
works  show  how  far  water  may  be  rendered  subservient  j  but  it  is  not 
often  that  Agriculture  requires  such. 

Of  the  three  canals  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pescia,  each  contains, 
commonly,  about  thre*  feet  of  running  water.  In  order  to  keep  them 
full,  the  two  rivers  are  suffered,  in  summer,  to  become  dry ;  and  as 
two  canals  have  their  source  in  Pescia  itself,  one  to  the  right,  and  the 
other  to  the  left,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make  the  water  flow,  alter- 
nately, in  one  only  of  the  two,. 

The  canal  is  inclosed  between  two  low  walls,(not  above  a  foot  high)- 
anr'<  has  sluices  in  various  pans  of  it  I  hese  sluices  are  lew,  and 
force  the  water  to  rise  ;  :■•  r  passes  fiver  them;  a  part  of  the  water  is 
thus  driven  into  streamlets  on  each  side  of  the  sluices,  by  which  it  m 


158  ON  PLAiNS  OF  TUSCANY. 

Conducted  to  the  lands.  The  owner  admits  the  water  thus  brought, 
to  him,  in  a  shallow  ditch,  dug  in  the  highest  part  of  his  land;  and, 
in  order  to  bring  it  to  the  level  of  his  fields,  interposes  other  sluices. 
As  each  field  is  separated  from  the  adjoining  one  try  a  ditch,  the  ,va- 
ter  is  made  to  pass  from  one  to  another,  by  means  of  small  sWne 
bridges,  or  in  wooden  troughs.  The  water  is  admitted  into  the  fields, 
from  the  highest  spot;  and  as  they  are  divided  into  beds  (plate- 
band'es)  of  three  or  four  feet  wide,  the  water  is  introduced,  siiccei* 
sively,  into  the  branches  between  the  beds.  As  there  is  little  or  no 
slope,  it  progresses  slowly,  and  is  absorbed  by  degrees,  till  the  earth 
is  completely  moistened  ;  so  that  a  person,  who  might  suppose  that 
he  could  walk  dry-footed  in  the  centre  of  one  of  these  beds,  would 
sink,  at  once,  far  above  his  ancles.  If  the*water  flows  too  rapidly  in 
the  trenches,  in  consequence  of  too  great  a  slope,  it  is  checked  by  a 
few  spadefuls  of  earth,  which  cause  it  to  penetrate  effectually  If,  on 
the  contrary,  there  is  not  slope  enough,  the  weight  of  water  from  be- 
hind, serves  to  advance  what  is  ahead.  It  cannot  stagnate  in  the 
trench,  unless  the  labourer,  unskilful  or  awkward,  neglects  to  observe 
the  natural  slope  of  the  ground,  and  endeavours  to  force  the  water  in 
a  contrary  direction  ;  nor  can  this  blunder  ever  be  repeated,  alter  the 
first  season  of  his  being  supplied  in  this  manner. 

This  mode  of  watering,  is  abundantly  sufficient  to  moisten  the 
roots  of  the  plants ;  and  the  crust  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  beds, 
prevents  a  too  quick  evaporation.  But,  when  the  object  is  to  water 
slips  (semis  >  seed-beds,  or  young  plants,  which  require  that  the  en- 
tire surface  of  the  ground  shall  be  moist,  the  gardener  places  himself 
in  the  trench,  from  whence,  with  a  large  wooden  shovel,  he  scatters 
the  water  as  it  advances  to  him,  from  right  to  left,  and  thus  abun- 
dantly furnishes  the  moisture  requisite  to  the  beds  around  him. 

Letting  off  Water. 

Whenever  the  waters  are  suffered  to  remain  too  long  in  the  earth, 
the  roots  of  plants  must  perish.  This  is  daily  experienced  in  flower- 
pots, and  is  not  less  true  of  fields  and  gardens.  Land,  therefore, 
must  he  well  drained  by  ditches,  and  those  ditches  must  have  an  easy 
and  sufficient  vent.  The  gores  raised  above  the  land,  and  every  me- 
thod of  watering,  as  well  as  river  banks,  would  serve  merely  to  ren- 
der the  land  marshy,  if  the  ditches  did  not  receive  the  moisture  that 
exudes  through  the  sides  of  the  canal,  as  well  as  that  which  remains 
after  the  watering  has  been  completed,  and  that  the  land  discharges 
in  the  process  of  becoming  dry.  The  slope  of  these  ditches,  must  be 
sufficient  to  prevent  any  stagnation  in  them. 

When  the  land  permits  the  construction  of  a  fall  in  the  canal  of 
admission,  immediately  adjoining  the  sluice  or  lock  by  which  the  wa- 
ter enters,  this  same  canal  or  ditch  may  answer  the  double  purpose  of 
furnishing  the  water  in  the  highest  part  of  the  fields,  and  of  receiving 
b.  1  >w  the  fall,  what  is  discharged  by  the  ditches  by  which  the  fields 
sre  drained.     In  this  manner,  an  advantage  is  gained  from  that  part 


0N  PLAINS  OF  TUSCANY.  159 

ef  the  land  which  would  have  been  appropriated  to  the  canal  of  dis- 
charge. But  it  becomes  necessary  to  dig  a  ditch  for  this  express  pur- 
pose, whenever,  for  want  of  a  slope  in  the  ground,  it  is  essential  to 
economise  the  descent  of  the  water.  In  general,  it  is  evident  that 
land  cannot  be  well  watered,  unless  it  has  a  sufficient  declivity  ;  this 
declivity  is  not,  indeed,  always  perceptible,  because  a  single  field,  or 
even  a  whole  estate,  may  be  perfectly  level.  Lands  adjoining  these 
nuy  be  much  lower  ;  and,  as  this  takes  place  somewhat  irregulariy, 
the  irregularity  is  attributed  either  to  chance,  or  to  the  greatei  or  less 
depth  03  the  ditches  ;  instead  of  being,  as  it  ought  to.  be,  attributed  to 
a  declivity  that  actually  exists. 

As  we  advance,  however,  into  the  plain,  this  declivity  really  ceas- 
es, and  then  irrigation  becomes  impossible.  The  waters  must  be 
drained  from  the  bottoms  of  the  ditches,  and  cannot  be  raised  to  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  land.  Manual  labour,  indeed,  will  effect 
this  in  part  :  the  water  may  be  bailed  from  the  ditch  into  the  trench. 
This  takes  place,  and  is  effected  quickly  enough  ;  but  they  do  not,  in 
Italy,  as  with  us,  use  watering-pots,  a  mode  of  applying  moisture, 
which  two  hours  of  sunshine  render  completely  inefficacious.  Nor 
do  they  dig  reservoirs  for  rain-water  ;  for  these  would  not  last  during 
the  summer,  and  might,  materially,  tend  to  corrupt  the  air.  But,  in 
some  of  the  plains,  where  there  are  springs  of  water,  as  those  of  Pisa 
and  the  Val  d'Elsa,  they  dig  large  wells,  from  which  they  extract 
water  by  means  of  a  puiscrand '.-,  or  water  wheel,  turned  by  a  horse. 
These  springs  are  generally  so  abundant  in  the  plains,  that  ihe  pui- 
serandes  furnish  as  much  water  as  a  stream. 

The  abundance  of  water  thus  furnished  to  their  plants,  is,  doubt- 
less, the  reason  that  they  are  watered  without  injury  even  in  the  hot- 
test weather;  the  gardeners  apply  it  at  all  hours,  both  of  day  and 
night,  without  the  least  bad  consequence.  Their  custom  is,  to  water 
their  vegetables,  meadows,  or  grass  lands,  every  eighth  day  (except 
the  seed  b  ds,  semis')  particularly  young  onions  or  other  bulbous 
plants,  which  require  to  be  watered  once  in  twenty -four  hours.  In 
preparing  land  for  seed  they  also  let  in  water  when  it  is  very  dry; 
but  let  it  remain  afterwards  for  two  or  three  days,  before  a  spade  is 
put  into  it. 

According  to  the  best  measurement  that  I  have  been  able  to  make, 
that  part  of  the  plain  of  Pescia  that  is  watered,  contains  from  four  to 
eight  hundred  yards  in  breadth,  by  four  or  five  miles  in  length.  Al- 
most the  whole  extent  of  this  ground  is  laid  off  into  gardens  ;  for  the 
town  of  Pescia  supplies  vegetables  to  almost  one  fourth  of  Tuscany, 
particularly  to  the  great  cities  of  Florence  and  Leghorn.  The  envi- 
rons of  Lucca  are  also  cultivated  as  kitchen  gardens,  so  far  as  they  ad- 
mit of  being  watered  ;  which  is  also  the  case  with  a  small  part  of  the 
plain  of  Pistora.  In  general,  there  is  hardly  any  part  of  Tuscany, 
where  agriculture,  upon  a  large  scale,  receives  this  sort  of  water  cul- 
ture ;  it  is  devoted  almost  wholly  to  garden  grounds,  to  the  exclusion 
«f  corn  and  forage. 


160  FOURCROY  ON  THE 


[edinburg  farmer's  magazine.]' 


w 


Tourwoy  on  the  Philosophy  of  Vegetation. 


Part  III. — On  the  Influence  of  Manure?,  on  Vegetation. 

J[  the  former  division,  it  was  shown,  that  pure  single  earths,  pro- 
pi  ily  or  chemically  so  named,  do  not  directly  serve  the  purposes  of 
vegetation  That  water  was  the  only  suhstance  which,  by  itself,  was 
capable  of  mpporting  vegetable  life,  although  it  even  did  not  supply 
all  the  principles  or  elements  necessary  for  ?he  full  growth  and  ferti- 
lity of  plant?. ;  insomuch,  that  most  of  these  fed  only  upon  water,  are 
either  very  weakly  in  their  vegetation,  or  do  not  perfect  their  fruits 
and  seeis.  Although  it  has  been  long  believed,  that  plants  receive 
their  nourishment  through  their  leaves,  which  they  absorb  from  the 
air  of  the  sunounding  atmosphere;  so  that  they  seem  capable  of 
growing  by  means  of  the  water,  light,  he  t,  oxygen  gas,  and  other 
elastic  aeriform  fluids,  c  ntained  in  the  ordinary  atmosphere  ;  yet, 
from  the  whole  series  of  agricultural  facts  and  experiments,  it  is  fully 
ascertained,  that  by  much  the  greater  part  of  the  nourishment  of 
plants,  in  general,  is  extracted  from  the  earth  or  soil  in  which  they 
grow  ;  and  that  this  has  great  influeuce  upon  their  condition,  their 
vigour,  the  rapidity  of  their  growth,  and  on  the  nature,  taste,  and  fla- 
vour of  their  fruits  and  other  productions. 

ft  has  long  been  observed,  that,  in  supplying  plants  with  the 
principles  necessary  for  th  jir  growth  und  perfection,  the  soil  in  time 
becomes  exhausted,  and  that  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  restore  t© 
it  what  hss  been  lost.  Hence  it  has  been  concluded,  that  something 
must  have  passed  from  the  soil  into  the  growing  plants  ;  that  this 
something  necessarv  to  vegetation,  was  gradually  wasted  or  extract- 
ed from  the  soil ;  and  that,  to  restore  its  vegetative  powers,  it  was  re- 
quisite to  replace  this  loss.  The  addition  or  restoration  of  this  nour 
ishine  vegetative  substance  to  the  soil,  constitutes  manure.  Nature 
perpetually  furnishes  the  example  of  this  incessant  necessity,  to  re- 
place the  continual  loss  experienced  by  the  soil,  in  consequence  of 
the  growth  of  those  vegetables  by  which  it  is  penetrated  and  covered. 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  VEGETATION.  l&i 

Every  year,  that  which  has  been  absorbed  from  the  soil  by  tne 
growth  of  plants,  is  restored  again,  by  means  of  the  remains  of  those 
plants  which  die:  these  remains  accumulate  on  the  surface,  rot,  and 
become  decomposed,  end  form  successive  layers  of  mould  or  vegeta- 
ble earth,  in  which  the  germs  of  new  plants  are  successively  develop- 
ed, and  from  which  their  young  roots  extract  the  elements  of  vegeta- 
tive .nourishment. 

3.  In  consequence  of  this  natural  succession,  those  parts  of  the 
earth  that  are  covered  oy  trees,  and  by  plants  of  various  kinds,  grow- 
ing every  wheie  under  their  shade,  become  gradually  covered,  to 
greater  or  less  depths,  with  a  stratum  of  vegetable  mould,  owing  to 
which  these  parts  retain  feitility  for  a  long  while.  In  the  stratum  of 
fertile  mould,  after  cleaning  away  and  cultivating  the  sites  of  ancient 
forests,  layers,  slips,  and  seeds  of  various  kinds  acquire  a  rapid  and 
luxuriant  growth.  Hence,  in  consequence  of  the  successive  deposi- 
tion of  ages,  the  almost  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  lands  which  have 
been  reclaimed  in  various  parts  of  the  immense  forests  of  America, 
where  the  cultivators  begin  by  cutting  duwn  or  burning  the  ancient 
vegetable  inhabitants,  to  make  way  for  the  growth  of  several  useful 
plants,  which  do  not  thrive  in  our  more  temperate  or  cold  climates. 

4.  In  imitation  of  the  process  of  nature,  when  soil  has  become  ex- 
hausted of  its  nourishing  juices,  or  vegetative  powers,  by  means  of 
too  long  continued  or  too  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  agriculturist,  by 
stirring  up  the  ground  with  the  plough  or  other  implements,  inserts 
into,  or  mixes  with  it,  the  corrupted  remains  of  vegetable  or  animal 
matters,  which  are  termed  manures  These,  for  the  most  part,  are 
composed  of  straw  which  has  served  as  litter  to  animals;  and  which, 
being  impregnated  with  their  dung  and  urine,  are  thrown  into  heaps, 
that  (hey  may  heat,  ferment  and  rot,  so  as  to  become  what  is  termed 
muck.*  Leaves  of  trees,  impregnated  in  the  same  manner,  heaped 
up,  heated,  fermented,  softened,  decomposed,  and  rotted,  are  like- 
wise employed  for  the  same  purposes.  Bones  of  animals,  horns, 
even  wood  cut  into  pieces,  or  bruised  into  powder,  are  often  employ- 
ed as  manures  in  some  countries  In  some,  human  ordure,  long  kept, 
is  used  as  manure  ;  sometimes  ever  preserved  till  it  has  changed  into 
a  pulverulent,  dry,  inodorous  substance. 

5.  With  the  same  views,  men  of  knowledge,  in  conducting  exten- 
sive improvements  of  exhausted  or  impoverished  land,  placing  upon 
them  numbers  of  animals,  chiefly  sheep,  effect  the  process  of  manur- 
ing in  a  large  way,  and  very  suddenly.  These  animals,  finding  suffi- 
cient nourishment  up  »n  the  ground,  return  much  more  to  the  soil  than 
they  take  from  it,  by  dropping  their  solid  and  fluid  excrements,  or  by 
means  of  the  grease  of  their  fleeces,  and  their  perspirable  matter 
when  they  lye  upon  the  earth  This  mode  of  manuring  the  soil,  cer- 
tainly requires  a  first  outlay  of  considerable  value  ;  but  it  largely  re- 


*  I  have  chosen  this  word  to  imply  rot'en  dung. — R.  r.  r. 

t  This  seems  to  hint  at  folding  ;  but,  at  any  rate,  is  much  below  the  modern 
bu  b  ndry\  which  improves  hy  alternate  crops  of  turnips  and  clover,  eaten  oa 
Che  ground,  producing  large  profits  while  improving. — H.  r.  r. 

21 


162  TOURCROY  ON  THE 

pays  the  expense  in  after  produce.  The  whole  plan  of  this  proce- 
dure turns  upon  the  reciprocal  conversion  of  vegetable  into  animal 
substance,  and  the  latter  again  into  the  former. 

6.  True  science  has  long  been  ignorant  respecting  the  cause  of  ac- 
tion of  these  manures  In  the  old  chemistry,  this  was  attempted  to 
be  explained  upon  a  theory  of  salts  and  stimulants,  which  modern 
discoveries  have  shown  to  be  altogether  absuib  and  gratuitous.  Thus, 
recent  agricultural  experiments  have  completely  proved,  that  the  in- 
troduction of  real  salt  into  the  soil,  instead  of  promoting  vegetation, 
actually  injures  the  growth  of  plants.  Modern  pneumato-chemical 
an :i lysis  has  supplied  more  exact  ideas  respecting  the  influence  of 
man  tires  upon  vegetation,  by  showing  that  the  substance  of  plants  is 
composed  of  hydrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  and  sometimes  azot,  and  of 
sulphur  and  phosphorus,  without  taking  into  consideration  lime,  si- 
lex,  md  potass.  Hence,  since  these  are  the  only  elements  in  the 
composition  of  the  substance  of  plants  or  vegetable  matter,  it  evi- 
dently follows,  that  these  only  are  necessary  for  their  growth. 

7-  This  reasoning  is  sufficient  to  open  our  road  to  a  knowledge  of 
the  mode  of  action,  or  theory  of  manures.  In  effect,  all  these  pri- 
mary elements  are  found  in  abundance,  in  those  compound  substan- 
ces already  mentioned,  from  which  muck  or  manure  is  prepared. 
Hydrogen  is  so  very  abundant  in  these,  that  it  often  escapes  in  form 
of  gas,  during  their  decomposition.  Carbon  shows  itself,  by  the 
black  colour  which  rotten  dunghills  acquire,  and  in  the  darkness  of 
the  mould  into  which  they  are  finally  converted.  What  is  called 
dunghill- water,  is  chiefly  water  holding  carbon  in  solution,  as  may  be 
seen  by  its  deposition  when  long  kept.  It  likewise  contains  ammo- 
niac and  other  animal  substances,  which,  however,  are  only  to  be 
considered  as  extraneous  admixtures.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  constant- 
ly escaping  from  vegetable  mould.  Thus,  these  compound  masses 
contain  every  thing  necessary  for  supplying  nourishment  to  plants, 
and  in  such  abundance,  as  to  make  it  perfectly  easy  to  explain  how 
Vegetation  should  be  so  luxuriant,  and  the  growth  of  plants  so  rapid, 
in  soils  mixed  with  these  manures. 

8.  From  thence,  likewise,  and  by  comparing  the  influence  of  the 
soil,  and  that  of  the  air,  upon  the  quick  growth,  and  vigourous  vege- 
tation of  plants,  we  may  judge  that  the  soil  contributes  largely,  in 
Consequence  of  the  manure  with  which  it  is  provided,  and  that  the 
to  its  of  plants  absorb  greedily  the  alimentary  materials  from  the  ma- 
nured soil,  in  a  liquid  form  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  very  little 
nourishment  is  conveyed  to  plants  through  their  leaves ;  which,  in 
teality,  are  rather  the  transpiratory  emunctories,  or  organs  of  excre- 
tion. It  is  likewise  sufficiently  proved  by  observation,  that  water  is 
almost  the  common  vehicle  for  conveying  earths,  carbonic  acid,  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  into  the  organs  of  plants  ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
"water  is  so  indispensably  necessary  in  the  soil  in  which  their  roots 
are  placed.  In  these  processes,  water  exerts  two  actions  ;  it  assists 
the  slow  and  progressive  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  and  animal 
■substances  composing  the  manures,  dissecting,  as  it  were,  their  ele- 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  VEGETATION.        163 

ments  from  each  other ;  and  it  conveys  these,  when  decomposed, 
into  the  absorbent  vessels  of  the  plants. 

9-  Manures,  or  those  organic  matters  which  form  them,  by  the 
mixture  of  their  particles,  with  the  particles  of  earths  strictly  so  call- 
ed, because  furnishing  nourishment  to  the  roots  of  plants,  exert  ano- 
ther action  which  is  auxiliary,  and  not  less  useful  to  vegetation. 
These  manures  undergo  a  constant  fermentation,  by  which  they  are 
attenuated,  divided  and  decomposed ;  and,  as  this  fermentation  ne- 
cessarily produces  an  increase  of  heat  or  temperature,  it  must  greatly 
promote  vegetation.  Mould  peculiajly  rich  in  vegetative  nourish- 
ment, such  as  those  employed  in  the  beds  and  frames  of  market  gar- 
deners, and  botanical  gardens,  and  which  contain  considerable  quan- 
tities of  horse-dung  and  spent  tan  bork,  become  so  warm,  that  the 
hand  discovers  a  considerable  heat  in  them  above  the  external  tempe- 
rature. Hence,  in  these,  many  plants  can  be  cultivated,  which  will 
not  thrive  in  our  ordinary  soils,  in  which  they  would  either  languish 
or  perish  altogether. 

10.  Agriculturists  are  perfectly  aware,  that,  if  they  employ  dung 
not  rotted,  or  too  little  fermented,  they  would  occasion  a  too  hasty 
vegetation,  dangerous  to  our  climate,  in  which,  delicate  plants,  too 
easily  forced  up,  would  be  readily  nipped  or  killed  by  the  cold. 
Hence  the  care  which  they  exert,  that  their  muck  may  not  be  too 
fresh  or  too  strong,  lest  it  occasion  a  too  violent  heat  in  the  earth  or 
soil  by  its  subsequent  fermentation  Hence  they  have  great  reason 
in  saying,  that  raw  or  unfermented  dung  is  too  hot  for  use.  Manures 
ferment  so  powerfully,  that  alkaline,  calcareous  and  ammonical  ace* 
tites.  may  be  extracted  from  them  by  elixation  ;  and  we  can  even  de- 
tect the  presence  of  acetous  acid,  in  fermenting  dung,  by  means  of 
pouring  on  some  stronger  acid,  which  disengages  a  strong  odour  of 
vinegar. 

11.  Another  effect  of  manures,  discovered  by  Ingenhousz,  is  the 
power  they  seem  to  exert  upon  the  atmosphere,  from  which  they  ab- 
sorb oxygen,  and  its  consequent  transmission  into  the  absorbent  ves- 
sels of  the  roots  of  plants.  When  vegetable  mould,  or  soil  mixed 
with  manure,  is  exposed  to  contact  of  air  in  a  close  vessel ;  the  air, 
after  some  time,  is  found  to  have  lost  part  of  its  oxygen;  and,  at 
length,  the  oxygen  is  entirely  obsorbed  This,  even,  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  procuring  the  azotic  gas  of  the  atmosphere,  in  a  state 
of  purity  from  oxygen  gas.  Although  Humboldt  believes  that  he 
has  ascertained  this  property,  of  absorbing  oxygen,  in  the  pure 
earths,  especially  alumine  and  magnesia  ;  it  is  almost  doubtless,  that 
it  must  be  more  powerful  in  such  as  are  mixed  with  vegetable  mat- 
ters ;  and  that  these,  in  manures,  act  upon  the  oxygen  like  combusti- 
ble bodies,  having  a  strong  tendency  to  become  oxvdated;  and  that 
from  these  oxydes,  the  roots  of  plants  carry  off  the  oxygen,  after  they 
have  penetrated  the  absorbent  vessels,  in  a  state  of  solution  in  water. 

12.  Oxygen,  thus  fixed  and  precipitated  from  atmospharic  air  by 
manures,  certainly  acts  a  part  of  more  or  less  importance  in  v»  >  ta- 
tion;  whether  we  consider  it  as  serving  to  invert  the  carbon  f  the 
manure  into  carbonic  acid,  so  useful  to  the  growth  of  plants,  when 


164  ON  THE  PHILOSOPHY,  &C» 

conveyed  to  them  dissolved  in  water;  or  when,  on  the  otiier  band* 
we  take  into  consideration  the  great  effect  produced  upon  vegetable 
nutrition,  by  means  of  dilute  oxi-muriatic  acid,  mixed  with  the  sod  in 
which  they  grow.  Pajot-Descharmes,  who  successfully  applies  che- 
mistry to  the  processes  of  manufacture,  observes,  that  excessively  di- 
lute oxi-muriatic  acid,  even  much  exhausted  by  several  successive 
bleaching  operations,  very  greatly  accelerated  the  growth  of  plants  in 
a  garden  which  he  had  watered  with  that  liquid.  Comparing  this 
fact  with  the  observtions  of  [nijenhousz  and  Humboldt,  already  men- 
tioned, we  discover  clearly,  that  the  absorption  of  oxygen  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  and  most  fertilizing  effects  of  manure. 

13.  From  these  facts,  so  luminously  explained  by  modern  chemi- 
cal knowledge,  the  effects  produced  by  labouring  and  frequenth  stir- 
ring the  earth,  are  readily  understood.  This  operation  of  fallow  is 
Strongly  recommended  by  all  experienced  and  judicious  agricultur- 
ists. It  is  evident  that,  in  stirring  the  land  to  a  certain  depth,  not 
only  is  it  rendered  lighter,  more  mellow,  more  divided,  and  more  pe- 
netrable ;  but,  in  this  operation,  numberless  insects  and  weeds,  which 
infest  and  exhaust  the  soil,  are  destroyed  ;  manure,  which  has  been 
buried,  is  brought  buck  towards  the  surface,  and  is  distributed  uni- 
formly through  all  parts  of  the  soil,  to  nourish  the  roots  of  future 
crops,  and  is  restored  to  places  which  had  been  exhausted  by  preced- 
ing ones.  By  continually  exposing  fresh  surfaces  of  the  soil  to  the 
air,  these  matters  which  have  a  tendency  to  become  oxydated.  are 
placed  so  as  to  acquire  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere;  by  augmenting 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  in  the  soil,  its  vegetative  power  is  increased 
proportionally  to  the  frequency  in  changing  its  exposed  surfaces  ;  by 
this,  the  flow  and  imperceptible  combustion,  which  forms  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  influence  of  air,  is  multiplied. 

14.  Formerly,  even  near  »ur  own  days,  when,  in  the  imperfection 
of  physical  knowledge,  mankind  were  satisfied  with  such  hypotheti- 
cal reasonings  as  then  constituted  all  theory,  these  effects  produced  on 
the  soil  by  the  influence  of  the  air,  were  vaguely  explairied  by  the 
supposition  of  certain  salts,  which  they  conceived  to  be  deposited  in 
the  soil  during  the  processes  of  fallowing.  In  those  days,  science 
had  not  acquired  that  exact  and  accurate  knowledge,  concerning  the 
nauire  of  air,  and  the  Composition  of  vegetable  substances,  which  now 
throw  so  clear  a  light  on  the  natural  processes  of  vegetation,  and  the 
influence  of  manures,  and  agricultnral  operations. 


FOURCROY  ON  VEGETATION.  165 


Fart  IV. — Of  the  Influence  of  Light  on  Vegetation* 

It  is  a  long  established  fact,  that  the  solar  light  has  an  obvious  and 
powerful  influence  on  veg>  tation.  All  plants  seem  to  seek  for  light, 
as  they  evidently  lean  or  grow  towards  that  side  from  which  it  shines. 
This  may  be  observed  where  bulbous  plants  are  reared  on  chimney- 
pieces,  or  similar  situations,  whence  they  uniformly  bend  towards  the 
the  windows.  It  is  likewise  obvious  in  forests  or  thickets,  where 
trees,  growing  close  together,  rise  straight  upwards  in  search  of  liyht; 
the  more  vigorous  overstep  the  weaker,  and,  at  length,  kill  them  \ 
whereas  trees  growing  singly,  or  at  large  intervals,  spread  out  to  con- 
siderable breadth  Hence,  when  it  is  wanted  to  have  timber  long 
and  straight,  the  trees  ought  to  be  closely  planted,  and  vice  versa. 

When  growing  plants  are  covered  by  wooden  boxes,  having  a  few 
fissures  so  as  to  admit  air,  they  bend  towards  the  cracks  in  search  of 
light.  Such  as  grow  in  vaults,  subterraneous  places,  or  mines,  always 
stretch  out  towards  the  air  pits,  and  grow  along  the  passages  which 
admit  any  portion  of  light,  however  feeble\ 

All  vegetation  that  takes  place  in  the  dark,  is  accompanied  by  phe- 
nomena, that  clearly  prove  the  powerful  effects  of  light,  from  the 
marked  difference  between  such  as  enjoy  that  influence,  and  those 
which  are  deprived  of  its  operation  ;  as  is  manifest  in  those  weakly 
plants  that  happen  to  grow  beneath  stones,  among  thick  tufts  of  moss 
in  the  subterraneous  passages  of  mines,  or  when  purposely  reared  in 
vaults  or  other  dark  places.  In  all  such  situations,  vegetables  ac- 
quire a  weakly,  soft,  and  aquetous  texture  ;  their  stems  and  branches 
are  slight,  herbaceous,  feeble,  and  almost  devoid  of  taste,  odour,  or 
colour ;  their  fibres,  saturated  with  too  much  water,  as  if  dropsical, 
never  acquire  a  woody  texture  ;  their  taste  is  always  watery  and  in- 
sipid, and  they  never  acquire  any  full  aromatic  odour  or  perfume. 
Such  plants  are  termed  etiolated  or  blanched. 

Exactly  similar  effects  are  produced  when  the  leaves  of  plants 
wrap  up  and  cover  each  other  from  the  light ;  whether  this  be  in  con- 
sequence of  natural  sheaths,  or  when  the  leaves  are  folded  upon  each 
other  by  art ;  as  in  lettuces,  succory,  cardoons,  and  other  plants,  tied 
up  by  gardeners  on  purpose  to  blanch  them  ;  and  in  cabbages,  sa- 
voys, and  the  like.  In  all  of  these,  the  external  leaves  which  enjoy 
the  light  are  perfectly  green,  while  those  within,  naturally  or  artifi- 
cially covered  up  and  involved  in  dark'. ess,  are  branched  or  etiolaied  5 
they  are  thereby  rendered  white,  soft,  delicate,  and  tender,  and  lose 
the  taste  and  flavour  of  the  native  plant  in  its  green  state,  or  retairr 
these  very  slightly. 

Such  plants,  on  the  contrary,  as  receive  the  most  direct  influence 
of  light  in  the  equatorial  regions,  abound  in  firm,  hard,  woody  fibres, 
are  highly  coloured,  strong  tasted,  and  powerfully  aromatic.  Be- 
tween the  tropics  is  the  native  seat  <>f  hard  woods,  dark  coloured,  and 
often  almost  woody  leaves,  volatile  oils,  resins,  camphor,  aromatic^ 


166  FOURCROY  ON  VEGETATION. 

and  spices ;  in  short,  of  all  the  strongest  tasted  and  most  powerfully 
medicinal  plants,  and  of  all  the  most  terrible  vegetable  poisons.  This 
difference  is  very  strongly  evinced  in  our  temperate  climes,  by  the 
difference  between  the  qualities  of  such  plants  as  grow  in  the  open 
air,  receiving  the  whole  influence  of  the  light ;  and  in  their  artificial 
cultivation,  where  light  is  carefully  kept  from  them,  as  already  no- 
ticed. 

The  influence  of  light  is^even  manifested  by  the  effects  of  lamps 
upon  growing  vegetables,  according  to  the  curious  experiments  of 
Tessier  at  Paris,  and  of  Humboldt  at  Berlin.  By  those  of  Humboldt, 
it  would  seem,  that  the  presence  of  some  other  elastic  fluids  may,  in 
part  at  least,  make  up  for  the  absence  of  light,  as  will  be  noticed  in 
the  sequel.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that,  by  sufficient  multiplication 
of  artificial  light,  the  phenomena  of  vegetation  dependent  upon  solar 
light,  may  be  more  or  less  nearly  imitated. 

The  causes  of  those  effects  of  light  upon  vegetation,  are  not  hither- 
to accurately  ascertained  by  actual  experiment,  at  least,  not  sufficient- 
ly to  remove  all  doubt.  Some  suppose,  that  the  changes  produced 
on  growing  vegetables  by  light,  are,  in  consequence  of  that  element, 
entering  into  actual  combination  with  this  substance.  Others  believe, 
that  the  light  merely  contributes  to  the  decomposition  of  water  and 
carbonic  acid  present  in  plants,  thereby  producing  the  fixation  of  the 
hydrogen  from  the  water,  and  of  the  carbon  from  the  carbonic  acid, 
and  the  disengagement  of  oxygen  from  both,  which  flies  off  in  the 
state  of  oxygen  gas.  In  the  sequel,  substantial  reasons  will  appear 
for  considering  the  latter  of  these  opinions  to  be  most  consonant  to 
fact. 

In  whatever  way  it  may  operate,  it  is  perfectly  ascertained,  that 
the  following  effects  are  produced  on  vegetables  by  light.  1.  They 
have  their  temperature  augmented.  2.  Their  power  of  absorption  is 
increased.  3.  The  septic  decomposition  of  their  elements  is  resist- 
ed. 4.  They  acquire  colour.  4.  The  production  of  oily,  aromatic, 
and  acrid  substances  or  juices  is  promoted.  6.  The  disengagement 
of  oxygen  gas  is  occasioned.  In  general,  their  vegetative  powers  are 
rendered  more  active  and  vigorous. 


Part  VI. — Of  the  Influence  of  Water  on  Vegetation. 

The  usefulness  of  water  to  vegetation  is  so  obvious  and  striking, 
that  most  naturalists  have  considered  it  to  be  the  primum  mobile  of 
growth  in  plants,  and  the  most  useful  material  which  enters  into  their 
composition.  This  opinion  has  prevailed  since  the  experiments  of 
Van  Helmont,  Boyle,  and  Duhamel;  in  which  trees  were  made  to 
grow  in  pure  water  for  several  years  j  and  confirmed  by  the  expert 


FOURCROY  ON  VEGETATION.  167 

ilients  of  Tillet,  which  prove,  that  the  nature  of  the  soils  in  which 
seeds  germinate,  is  almost  of  no  importance,  and  that  they  require 
hardly  any  thing  besides  water  for  their  growth  and  nourishment. 
All  the  experiments  of  naturalists  and  husbandmen  unite  in  proving 
the  vast  utility  of  water,  and  the  superior  importance  over  every  other 
material,  for  promoting  vegetation;  the  explanation  of  which  fact  has 
very  much  employed  the  attention  of  the  learned. 

To  prove  this  principal  influence,  and  vast  usefulness  of  water  on 
vegetation,  to  the  accurate,  but  necessarily  limited,  experiments  of 
philosophers,  the  equally  authentic  and  extensive  experience  of  the 
fertility  of  moist  situations,  the  rich  production  of  irrigated  meadows, 
and  the  superior  productiveness  of  lands  that  are  situated  upon  brooks 
and  rivulets,  over  such  that  are  dry  and  arid,  may  all  be  cited.  To 
these  may  be  added,  the  astonishing  fertility  of  Egypt,  owing  to  the 
inundations  of  the  Nile,  justly  considered  by  the  natives  as  the  gift  of 
heaven.  Thus,  the  experience  ol  practical  agriculture,  and  of  the 
productions  of  different  countries,  afford  incontestlble  proofs  of  the 
influence  of  water  on  vegetation  ;  and  these  facts  may  be  most  use- 
fully multiplied  by  further  observation.  We  have  a  further  confirma- 
tion of  this  interesting  fact,  in  the  industrious  market  gardeners  of 
Paris,  who  force  the  soil  to  give  out  uninterruptod  and  astonishingly 
abundant  crops  of  vegetables,  by  continually  fertilizing  the  ground 
by  means  of  vast  quantities  of  water. 

To  explain  the  influence  of  water  on  vegetation,  it  is  necessary  to 
inquire  into  its  manner  of  acting  upon  the  various  organs  .of  plants. 
It  certainly  passes  into  their  substance  through  their  roots.  When 
the  roots  of  a  withered,  dry  and  shrivelled  plant  are  placed  in  water, 
it  recovers  its  freshness  and  vigour,  and  renews  its  vegetation.  Co- 
loured liquor  perceptibly  penetrates  and  rises  up  through  the  vessels 
of  the  young  and  white  radical  fibres,  to  which  it  communicates  co- 
Jour.  Every  tree  or  planet  grows  and  passes  through  its  vegetative 
functions,  with  more  or  less  vigour,  in  proportion  as  its  roots  are  less 
or  more  furnished  with  moisture.  This  water,  absorbed  by  the  roots, 
passes  up  through  the  stems  into  all  parts  of  the  plant.  It  partly  ex- 
udes from  the  leaves,  which  return  it  to  the  atmosphere ;  and  the 
more  abundant  the  production  of  this  transudation,  in  consequence  of 
the  heat  and  solvent  power  of  the  air,  so  much  the  greater  is  the  ab- 
sorption of  water  by  the  siooj 

This  germination,  if  not  exclusively,  is  partly  produced  by  means 
of  water,  is  perfectly  obvious.  Seeds,  before  they  can  germinate, 
must  necessarily  absorb  water;  and  for  this  purpose,  must  be  placed 
in  moist  earth,  or  some  other  wetted  substance,  or  upon  a  moist  sur- 
face of  some  kind.  Every  perfectly  dry  situation  entirely  prevents 
any  degree  of  germination.  It  does  not  seem,  however,  that  this 
process  can  be  produced  by  the  influence  of  water  alone ;  or  that 
seeds  entirely  .immersed  in  water  can  germinate.  It  is  even  believed, 
that  the  seeds  of  aquatic  plants  require,  in  the  first  place,  to  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  ;  whence  some  of  them,  after  germination, 
sink  to  the  bottom,  that  they  may  fix  their  roots  in  the  mud.  It  re- 
quires to  be  considered,  whether  water  penetrates  into  the  substanr* 


168  FOUnCROY  ON  VEGETATION. 

of  vegetables  only  by  the  seeds  during  germination,  and  by  the  roots 
during  the  subsequent  process  of  vegetation;  or  whether  it  may  pe- 
netrate by  other  means  ? 

Most  inquirers  into  the  physiology  of  vegetation,  have  considered 
the  leaves  of  plants  as  possessing  absorbent  pores  and  vessels,  by 
whu:h  they  absorbed  the  water  which  separates  from  the  atmosphere 
in  form  of  dew;  that  this  absorption  took  piece  chiefly  in  the  nighty 
and  during  misty  or  dewy  weather,  and  might,  in  part  at  least,  supply 
the  place  of  absorption  by  the  roots,  when  the  ground  was  very  dry. 
In  support  of  this  opinion,  they  cite  the  excellent  observations  of 
Bonnet,  respecting  the  difference  between  the  two  surfaces  of  leaves; 
po  urn  iked,  both  in  their  structure  and  functions,  that  when  the  under 
surface  is  laid  upon  water  they  reman  fresh,  or  even  vegetate ; 
whereas,  if  the  upper  surface  is  laid  upon  water  they  shrivel  aid  die, 
or  at  least  continue  fresh  a  much  shorter  time  than  in  the  other  posi- 
tion Hence,  they  conclude,  that  the  under  surface  of  leives  is  ab- 
sorbent, and  inhales  moisture  ;  wnile  the  upper  surface,  on  the  con- 
trary, exhales.  But  we  do  not  perceive  by  what  power  the  atmos- 
pherical moisture  can  thus  be  made  to  penetrate,  or  how  it  can  be 
enabled,  without  pushing  back  the  fluids  contained  in  the  vessels  of 
the  plant,  to  penetrate  into  the  vessels  already  occupied  by  those 
fluids,  without  having  recourse  to  the  supposition  of  a  vacuum,  which 
is  by  no  means  proved.* 

In  whatever  manner,  or  by  whatever  passage,  water  may  insinuate 
into  the  vessels  of  vegetables,  it  is  at  lnast  certain  that  it  continually 
passes  through  them,  penetrating  into  all  their  organs,  and  to  every 
point  of  their  substance,  and  is  perpetually  renewed  ;  that  this  circu- 
lation and  renewal  are  necessary  to  the  life  of  vegetables,  as  the  vi- 
gour and  quickness  of  vegetation  are  nearly  proportional  to  the  quan- 
tities of  water  absorbed.  Since,  by  the  introduction  of  water  into 
vegeiables,  its  presence  in  their  vessels,  and  its  circulation  or  passage* 
through  them,  plants  evidently  grow,  it  remains  to  inquire  in  what 
way  water  is  useful  for  their  nutrition  ;  and  we  proceed  to  state,  how 
far  this  has  hitherto  been  ascertained  by  the  present  state  of  scientific 
discovery. 

Water,  which  filtrates  through  the  roots  of  plants,  carries  along 
with  it  every  thing  that  it  finds  in  the  soil,  and  which  it  is  capable  of 
dissolving.  In  this  first  point  of  consideration,  water  becomes  the 
vehicle  for  carrying  into  the  substance  or  organs  of  plants,  every  ali- 
mentary substance  that  is  contained  in  the  earth  or  soil  in  which  they 
grow. 

It  has,  of  late,  been  thoroughly  proved,  that  water,  impregnated 
with  certain  soluble  gases,  is  greatly  more  conducive  to  vegetation, 
than  water  deprived  of  air,  by  boiling  or  other  means.  Hence,  snow 
water,  which  reabsorbs  the  air  it  had  lost  by  congelation,  during  its 
gradual  meeting,  and  which  sinks,  thus  aerated,  into  tjie  around,  to 

*  The  fact,  not  withstanding  this  reasoning,  is  certain.  A  man  in  a  warm- 
bath,  though  bis  vessels  are  ali  full,  mo-  assured  y  ^ives  we  ght.  Tri  obstruct- 
ed deglutition,  people  have  been  actually  nourished  by  baths  of  strong  broths. 


fcOURCROY  ON  VEGETATION.  169 

water  the  loots  of  plants,  produces  such  quick  and  remarkable 
Vegetation  in  early  spring.  Hence,  likewise,  the  water,  from  gentle 
showers.  Having  acquired  a  high  saturation  of  air  in  descending 
through  the  atmosphere,  equally  covering  and  gradually  penetrating 
the  soils,  very  actively  contributes  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Hence, 
vegetation  is  much  less  promoted  by  water  from  pit-wells  or  cisterns, 
than  by  water  which  has  run  for  some  distance  above  ground,  so  as 
to  be  saturated  with  air. 

The  different  substances  in  the  soil,  which  are  susceptible  of  con- 
tributing to  vegetable  nourishment,  being  in  a  dry  or  solid  state,  are 
incapable  of  penetrating  by  the  roots  into  the  organs  of  plants, 
unless  by  the  agency  of  water  either  suspending  those  substances  in 
a  state  of  extremely  minute  division,  or  by  true  chemical  solution, 
anj  thus  carrying  the  particles  of  those  various  matters  within  the 
Substance  of  plants,  so  as  to  serve  for  their  nourishment.  Hence,  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  is  supplied  to,  and  ab- 
so.  i  by  plants,  their  nourishment  from  those  other  matters  which 
it  co.iveys  must  be  the  more  abundant,  ft  will  be  afterwards  seen, 
that  even  silicious  earth,  is  carried,  by  means  of  water,  into  the 
substance  of  plants,  as  that  element  is>  found  in  the  analysis  of  vege- 
tables, after  the  separation  of  the  soluble,  saline,  inflammable,  and 
other  materials  of  their  composition. 

In  thus  entering  peipetually  into  the  vessels  of  vegetables,  to 
which  it  carries  the  various  substances  necessary  for  augmenting  their 
component  materials,  and  causing  their  growth  and  increase,  it  is 
obvioui  that  water  fills,  distends,  swells,  and  lengthens  those  vessels 
or  canals;  supporting  and  preserving  the  cellular  and  vascular  plexus 
of  their  structuie,  by  a  proper  distension  of  their  parts.  Htnce,  in 
long  droughts,  or  when  burnt  up  by  scorchij^g  winds,  or  the  two  fierce 
action  of  the  sun's  rays,  plants  become  withered  or  faded,  their  leaves 
supple,  hanging  down  and  ready  to  fall  offhand  threatened  with  speedy 
death  ;  but,  on  the  supply  of  sufficient  moisture,  they  quickly  tevive, 
recover  their  erect  posture  and  healthy  appearance,  and  resume  their 
growth  with  more  vigour  than  before. 

Water  obviously  enters  undecomposed  into  the  substance  of  plants, 
and  constitutes  one  of  their  constituent  elements,  forming  the  basis- 
of  the  sap,  and  of  all  the  juices  which  they  contain,  and  serving  to 
hold  in  solution  their^icids,  salts,  extractive  matters,  mucilages,  and 
other  substances,  to  be  afterwards  enumerated.  So  far  only  was  the 
use  of  water  known  to  the  older  chemists,  who  even  conce-ved  it  to 
exi^i  in  a  solid  state  in  several  vegetable  productions.  But  modern 
chemical  science  has  pointed  out  still  more  extensive  uses  of  water 
in  the  economy  of  growing  vegetables. 

From  the  observations  of  Lavoisier  and  Berthollet,  and  the  expe- 
riments of  Ingenhousz,  in  which  leaves,  immerced  in  water  and 
exposed  to  the  sun,  were  found  to  give  out  oxygen  gas,  it  has  been 
believed  that  water  was  decomposed  in  the  vessels  of  plants,  and 
particularly  in  those  of  their  leaves  ;  that  this  decomposition  was 
assisted  by  the  influence  of  light,  especially  by  that  of  the  sun  ;  and 
that,  by  this  decomposition,  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  was  fixed  in 
the  plants,  contributing  to  the   formation   ©f  their  eils,  extractive 


176  ON  THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLES 

matters,  and  colouring  substances  ;  while  a  part  of  its  oxygen  wa^ 
fixed,  at  the  same  time,  to  constitute  their  various  oxyds,  as  sugar, 
mucus,  fecula,  and  others,  and  their  peculiar  acids :  the  greater 
portion  of  this  oxygen  of  the  water,  after  separation  from  its  hydro- 
gen, being  dissolved  by  the  caloric  of  the  light,  assumes  the  form  of 
ga»  or  air,  and  escapes,  often  with  considerable  rapidity,  from  the 
surface  of  the  plants,  more  especially  of  their  leaves. 

By  this  discovery  of  the  decomposition  of  water  in  the  leaves  of 
vegetables,  through  the  influence  of  the  solar  rays,  the  great  useful- 
ness of  water  in  vegetable  economy,  and  a  source  of  the  two  principal 
component  elements  of  vegetable  substances,  are  ascertained.  We 
thus  learn  how  the  salubrious  atmosphere  is  perpetually  renewed  by 
the  mechanism  of  vegetation,  which  restores  to  it,  by  what  may  be 
termed  decombustion,  the  oxygen  of  which  it  is  continually  deprived 
by  many  causes  of  an  opposite  nature.  By  the  knowledge  of  this 
simple  phenomenon,  we  are  enabled  to  explain  a  number  of  facts 
and  complicated  circumstances,  which  were  formerly  unknown,  or  at 
least  the  connexion  of  which  with  physical  science  was  not  under- 
Stood. 

It  must  not  however  be  concealed,  that  this  decomposition  of 
Water  by  the  leaves  of  living  vegetables,  assisted  by  the  influence 
of  solar  light,  is  denied  by  some  modern  philosopheres.  Their 
reasons  will  be  brought  forward  and  considered  in  the  sequel  of  this 


On  the  first  Principles  of  Agriculture, 

As  every  trade  and  profession  must  now-a-days  have  its  axioms, 
postula,  or  first  principles,  in  order  to  give  it  a  scientific  dress  among 
other  crafts,  it  is  highly  reasonable,  that  the  art  of  agriculture, 
which  is  now  almost  completely  reduced  to  a  science,  should  also  be 
permitted  to  assume  its  first  principles.  Without* the  knowledge  of  first 
principles,  nothing  can  be  expected  from  any  of  the  practitioners  of 
agriculture  worthy  of  attention,  their  practice  being  merely  a  copy 
from  that  already  established,  if  not  some  gross  deviation  perhaps 
from  the  beated  track,  by  means  of  some  erroneous  idea  of  their 
own  conceiving.  Men,  acquainted  with  first  principles,  will  never 
deviate  from  them,  while  they  find  them  correct :  perhaps  they  may 
try  some  experiment  consistent  with  them  and  succeed.  This, 
then,  is  the  foundation  from  which  we  are  to  expect  a  rational 
system  of  agriculture,  adapted  to  all  the  varieties  of  soil,  climate, 
and  seasons,  with  which  it  must  ever  be  connected. 

It  is  true,  that,  by  means  of  great  attention  to,  and  a  careful  and 
judicious  imitation  of,    good  farmers,    a  man  of  mean  talents  is 


OP  AGRICULTURE.  171 

sometimes  known  to  make  a  tolerable  figure  in  this  line.— He  may 
raise  good  crops ;  and  good  crops  are  no  bad  criterion  of  good 
farming  Indeed,  a  man,  otherwise  a  blockhead,  at  least  one  who 
has  no  notion  of  first  principles,  often  excels  those  who  adhere  to 
them  with  scrupulous  exactness ;  but  this  must  be  only  where  the 
knowing  man  wants  the  talent  of  strict  application.  This  talent  is 
an  essential  requisite  for  a  farmer ;  indeed  it  is  indispensable  in 
every  occupation  where  success  is  desired. 

The  general  principles,  upon  which  the  success  of  agriculture 
depends,  are, 

1.  Without  draining  wet  land,  no  improvement. 

2.  Unless  land  thus  drained,  is  properly  cleaned,  the  object  of 
draining  is  frustrated,  and  that  in  proportion  as  this  operation  is 
executed. 

3.  Manures  will  always  fail  in  producing  the  desired  effect,  in 
proportion  as  draining  and  cleaning  are  neglected. 

4.  Early  sowing  always  produces  shorter  and  sthTer  straw  than 
late  sowing,  and  that  in  exact  proportion  to  the  times,  when  not 
affected  by  extraneous  circumstances. 

5.  The  various  species  of  seed-corn  are  adapted  to  various  soils, 
situations,  seasons,  and  other  circumstances. 

6  Picking  and  propagating  the  best  heads  of  the  most  approved 
kinds  of  grain  and  seeds,  is  the  surest  method  of  preserving  them 
undegenerate. 

Draining — This  article  has  been  amply  discussed  by  able  hands, 
and  Elkington's  mode  of  draining  is  universally  known.  Almost 
every  field  has  its  own  peculiar  circumstan  *es  ;  and  the  general  idea 
of  intercepting  the  spring  is  an  established  principle  in  this  art.  But 
sometimes,  when  there  is  not  sufficient  descent  to  allow  the  drain 
to  be  cut  as  low  as  some  deep  sand  or  water  gravel,  where  the 
springs  lye,  a  few  pits  (to  be  afterwards  filled  with  stones),  or 
some  holes  by  the  boring  irons,  will  have  a  surprising  effect  in 
raising  the  water  into  that  drain,  otherwise  to  ebb  to  reach  the 
springs,  and  thereby  carry  it  off.  It  is  not  my  design,  in  this 
place,  to  enter  into  the  minutiae  of  draining,  but  to  introduce  it  as 
a  first  principle  in  farming. 

Without  draining,  no  improvement. — Without  it,  no  other  opera- 
tion  can  be  effectual  to  the  end  proposed.  When  land  is  gorged 
with  water,  it  cannot  be  cleaned.  No  labour  is  sufficient  to  doit, 
except  in  a  very  uncommon  drought ; — in  some  soils,  not  even  then  : 
and  when  land  is  not  clean,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  dung, 
lime,  or  any  other  kind  of  manure,  can  have  its  full  effect.  Dung- 
will  promote  the  natural  grasses  more  than  any  kind  of  grain  which 
may  be  sown  ;  and  these,  although  the  land  is  sown  with  artificial 
grass  seed,  will  still  thrive,  and  render  the  ground  completely  fit  for  a 
summer  fallow  immediately  after  dirty  lea  oats. 

Cleaning. — This  article  requires  the  farmer's  constant  attention, 
and  by  this  alone  can  be  rendered  effectual.  Early  ploughing  is 
of  much  importance ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  be  too  early  at  summer 
fallows,  when  spring  sowing  is  over.  As  I  at  present  speak  chiefly 
of  land  in  the  second  stage  of  improvement,  it  must  not  be  con- 


3 72  $N  THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLES 

sidered  so  clean  as  in  future  it  may  be  expected.  We  shall  suppose 
the  land  of  a  free  nature,  but  extremely  dirty  by  means  of  its  late 
moist  state  previous  to  draining;  and  that  it  has  been  capable  of 
carrying  one  or  two  crops  of  oats,  in  order  to  reduce  its  surface 
sward  ;  and  is  now  under  summer  fallow.  Every  farmer  may 
plough  to  his  own  mind,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
grass  he  has  to  destroy  :  but,  in  general,  light  ploughing  is  sufficient 
to  kill  grass,  which  generally  runs  near  the  surface  ;  and  then, 
Jbefore  the  manure  is  applied,  a  strong  furrow  is  of  much  use,  to  mix 
new  earth  with  the  dung.  At  the  same  time,  some  s  ils  will  not  admit 
©f  a  strong  furrow,  unless  in  the  spring,  before  the  moisture  is 
exhausted.  In  such  situations,  harrowing,  rolling,  and  gathering 
grass  roots  frequently  after  every  ploughing,  is  essentially  necessary  ; 
but  it  is  not  my  design  to  teach  either  ploughing  or  harrowing. 

Manures. — N either  is  it  my  design  to  treat  of  the  nature  and 
properties  of  manures,  and  how  they  operate  upon  land,  so  as  to 
produce  better  crops  ; — whether  by  communicating  to  the  soil  the 
vegetable  food  which  they  contain  ; — whether  by  enabling  it  to 
attract  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere, — or  by  enlarging  the 
vegetable  pasture  which  it  contains^ — or  by  dissolving  that  which  the 
soil  already  contains,  so  as  to  prepare  it  for  entering  the  roots  of 
plants.  These  are  philosophical  inquiries,  not  essentially  connected 
with  the  present  business  Upon  this  subject,  there  are  various 
theories,  some  of  which  are  extremely  rational,  and  others  extremely 
absurd.  Concerning  the  salts,  which  are  an  essential  ingredient  of 
dung,  it  is  certain  they  cannot  evaporate ;  but  the  oil  and  watery 
parts  certainly  will.  We  have  a  good  illustration  of  this  hypothesis, 
in  the  operation  of  the  sun  upon  salt  water.  In  warm  climates,  the 
sun  exhales  every  thing  from  salt  water,  when  exposed  to  its  influ- 
ence, except  the  salt  itself.  In  this  way  the  inhabitants  of  such 
climes  obtain  that  commodity.  It  is  even  gathered  upon  rocks, 
which  the  sea  has  abandoned  after  lodging  a  part  of  its  water  upon 
their  exposed  surfaces.  But,  when  exposed  in  a  more  equal  and 
Tegular  manner,  on  an  even  surface,  it  is  much  sooner  and  more 
easily  obtained. 

When  dung  is  carried  to  a  field  of  summer  fallow  and  spread  out 
green  (as  it  ought  to  be),  till  the  act  of  fermentation  has  completely 
ceased,  the  oils  must  evaporate.  But,  as  experience  teaches  us,  that 
no  material  difference  can  be  discerned  between  that  which  has  been 
spread  and  that  which  has  not,  we  must  conclude,  that  the  oils 
become  fixed  as  soon  as  the  dung  dries  ;  and  that  the  essential  quali- 
ties of  the  dung  are  thereby  preserved,  and  ready  to  exert  themselves 
as  soon  as  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Early  sowing  produces  less  straw  than  late  sowing,  and  that  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  times  (cceteris  paribus  ,). — The  knowledge 
of  this  principle,  which  has  not  been  discovered,  at  least  not  attended 
to,  till  within  the  last  twenty  years,  is  of  much  importance  to  the 
farmer.  Before  it  was  known  and  practised,  the  hazards  of  sowing 
land  in  a  very  high  state  of  cultivation  was  very  great.  Oats  or 
Jbarley  sown  in  such  condition,  at  the  usual  period  of  seed  time  as 
formerly,  viz.  oats,  late  in  March,  and  Barley  about  the  term  qi 


OF    AGRICULTURE*  1 1$ 

Whitsunday,  would  have  been  often  entirely  ruined  by  being  too 
strong.  English  barley  (commonly  from  Lincolnshire)  and  Dutch 
and  many  other  early  kind  of  oats,  were  adopted  without  changing 
the  time  of  sowing  :  and  as  these  have  a  tendency  to  produce  shorter 
straw,  they  were  found  of  much  advantage  in  securing  a  full  crop 
without  lodgiug.  But  it  is  found  that  any  of  our  oats  sown  earlv,  pro- 
duce a  shorter  and  differ  straw,  which  has  the  same  effect.  Early 
oats,  however,  are  still  much  in  vogue,  The  Lincoln  barley  is  al- 
most out  of  repute  It  is  well  known  to  some  farmers,  that  the  com- 
mon Scotch  barley  is  the  best  substitute  for  it, — as,  when  sown  early, 
its  straw  becomes  shorter,  much  stiffer,  and  less  apt  to  lodge.  Po- 
tato oats  are  a  new  species  introduced  within  these  very  few  years; 
and  are  said  to  be  natives  of  South  America.  It  appears  they  were 
first  imported  into  some  of  our  Midland  counties  of  Scotland,  in  a 
quantity  extremely  small ;  and  that  they  obtained  thar  name  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  arriving  in  a  package  of  potatoes.  This  a  va- 
luable kind  of  oats  in  point  of  meal,  yielding  two  or  three  pecks  per 
boil  more  than  the  Angus,  which,  in  every  other  respect,  we  reckon 
our  best  oats.  They  appear  to  be  again  loosing  ground  in  the  esti- 
mation of  some  people.  They  are  more  apt  than  any  other  kin  J  to 
keep  the  soil,  like  wild  outs,  and  thereby  to  annoy  the  succeeding 
crops.  It  seems  to  be  apprehended  that,  were  they  to  be  frequently 
shaken  and  ploughed  in  dry,  that  they  would  be  as, great  a  weed  too. 
They  seem  to  have  another  disadvantage,  which  in  the  present  cir- 
cumstances of  our  labour,  is  not  a  small  one.  They  ripen  along 
with  the  wheat ;  and  that  article  being  now  more  than  ever  the  chief 
object  of  the  farmer,  it  is  in  danger  of  occasioning  very  serious 
consequences  as  to  the  time  of  cutting  that  crop.  Potato  oafs 
are  always  extremely  apt  to  shake,  and  seldom  fail  to  drop  in  shear- 
ing. All  kinds  of  early  oats  are  fit  only  for  fine  land,  or  land  in  a 
high  state  of  cultivation  ;  but  upon  inferior  land,  they  are  the  best, 
when  a  bad  season  has  thrown  the  seedtime  too  far  back  for  common 
ones.  Blainsley  oats  are  our  native  early,  and  have  a  finer  meal  as 
well  as  finer  straw ;  but  they  seem  mostly  out  of  favour  at  present. 
These  several  varieties  of  oats  and  barley  afford  the  farmer  great  ad- 
vantages in  securing  his  grass-seeds^  as  well  as  his  corn  crop,  in 
certain  seasons  and  situations 

As  to  spring  wheat,  the  dwarf  kind,  which  is  known  to  produce 
short  straw,  and  is  an  excellent  flourishing  kind,  is  also  advan- 
tageous in  the  above  circumstances  ;  and  as  it  has  a  natural  tenden- 
cy to  produce  short  straw,  it  ought  certainly,  upon  rich  soils,  to  be 
preferred  in  winter. 

Picking  out  the  best  heads  of  the  most  approved  grain,  is  the 
best  method  of  preserving  the  species  from  degenerating.  It  must 
be  evident  to  every  one,  that  grain  has  a  constant  tendency  to  dege- 
nerate. But  whether  its  species  suffers  or  not,  it  must,  by  a  thou- 
sand circumstances,  be  so  blended  and  mixed  with  other  kinds,  and 
even  with  different  grain,  that  it  requires  frequently  to  be  renewed 
by  picking  and  propagating  the  best  heads.  This  is  found  by  expe- 
rience to  be  the  surest  method  of  preserving  the  grain  ;  and  so  differ- 
ent is  the  produce  of  the  earliest  and  most  vigorous  ears  from  that  oi 


174  ON    RECLAIMING 

the  poor  diseased  ones,  that  it  has  generally  obtained  some  name  t* 
distinguish  it  from  that  even  of  its  own  kind. 


O/i  Reclaiming  Salt  Marshes. 

Dear  Sir — Your  letter  of  the  30th  ult.  enclosing  a  communica* 
tion  from  Dr.  Holmes  on  the  subject  of  reclaiming  marshes,  was  sent 
to  me  a  few  days  ago,  by  our  mutual  friend  Mr.  Haines.  Having 
been  very  much  engaged  for  the  last  ten  days  past,  I  could  not  soon- 
er comply  with  your  request.  Nothing,  I  assure  you,  could  afford 
me  greater  pleasure  than  to  contribute  my  humble  mite  towards  the 
laudable  object,  which  you  have  manifested  so  much  zeal  and  ability 
in  promoting  u  the  improvement  of  the  agriculture  of  our  country. " 
The  interchange  of  opinions,  and  the  communication  of  practical 
results  upon  so  important  a  subject  as  agriculture,  cannot  fail  to  pro- 
duce the  most  beneficial  effects  to  the  country  at  large.  Individuals 
are  constantly  making  changes  and  improvements.  To  know  the 
course  and  termination  of  these  trials  may  induce  similar  experiments, 
or  operate  as  a  warning  to  the  most  sanguine  dispositions  to  avoid 
the  expense  and  mortification  attendant  upon  defeat.  Our  agricul- 
tural works  afford  us  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  upon  al- 
most every  subject  connected  with  the  art.  But  I  know  none  which 
treat  upon  the  subject  of  embanking  marshes.  Besides,  their  publi- 
cation being  periodical  and  at  distant  periods  of  time,  and  their  cir- 
culation limited,  I  consider  your  journal,  affording  as  it  does  con- 
stant and  almost  daily  information,  as  an  invaluable  acquisition  to 
the  enterprising  part  of  the  community ;  and  permit  me  here  to  ten- 
der you  my  thanks  for  the  information  and  pleasure,  which  I  have 
derived  from  the  perusal  of  your  interesting  paper. 

I  am  happy  to  perceive  that  intelligent  individuals  of  enterprise 
and  wealth,  are  directing  their  attention  to  a  subject  of  the  greatest 
consequence  to  the  welfare  of  the  Atlantic  States,  the  reclaimation 
of  cultivation  upon  the  seaboard  of  the  most  valuable  portion  of  our 
domains.  The  immense  tracts  of  marsh  to  be  found  all  along  the 
coast,  and  on  our  rivers,  could  not  fail,  when  thoroughly  recovered, 
to  produce  the  richest  and  most  inexhaustible  arable  and  pasture 
grounds.  This  fact  although  not  generally  known  or  admitted,  is 
nevertheless  true,  and  one  of  the  greatest  importance,  especially 
when  taken  in  connexion  with  their  proximity  to  an  eternally  increas- 
ing market.  Of  what  consequence  is  it  to  the  farmer  in  the  inte- 
rior, if  he  can  raise  100  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  or  three  tons  of 
the  best  timothy,  if  he  can  procure  for  the  one  only  ten  or  fifteen 
dollars,  and  for  the  other  perhaps  not  ten  dollars.  Agriculture  when 
pursued  with  a  view  to  profit,  will  never  succeed  remote  from  a 


SALT-MARSHES. 


175 


taiarket.  And  hence  the  importance  of  .converting,  if  possible,  every 
acre  of  water  land  on  the  sea  board,  from  Georgia  to  Maine,  into 
tillable  ground.  And  I  am  ready  to  venture  the  assertion,  that  no 
well  directed  and  well  executed  design  of  converting  salt-marsh  into 
fresh  meadow,  if  conducted  upon  proper  principles  and  firmly  per- 
sisted in,  has  ever  failed.  Failures,  no  doubt,  are  numerous,  but 
they  are  the  failures  of  ill  judged  and  improperly  executed  designs, 
and  not  the  fault  of  the  land  itself.  A  badly  constructed  dyke, 
grounds  not  drained  sufficiently  deep,  after  being  dyked,  owing  to  a 
want  of  fall  in  the  tides  or  other  causes ;  and  finally,  the  preceding 
objections  out  of  the  question,  a  want  of  judgement  or  diligence  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  must  produce  disappointment.  But  where 
the  work  have  been  made  to  exclude  the  water,  and  the  grounds 
within  are  well  drained  and  well  cultivated,  there  is  hardly  a  possi- 
bility of  a  failure.  For  ordinary  marsh  contains  all  the  necessary 
ingredients  of  the  most  perfect  soil.  Its  composition,  invariably  to 
a  certain  extent  and  almost  wholly  consists  of  the  same  materials  as 
the  alluvials  of  the  interior  ;  a  deposition  of  vegetable  and  animal 
matter,  with  a  due  proportion  of  the  sediment  or  wash  of  the  river  ; 
and,  I  conceive,  it  can  differ  from  them  in  no  essential  particular, 
excepting  that  in  the  first  instance  they  are  saturated  with  salt  water.  . 
If  this  be  excluded  and  the  previously  mentioned  process  be  pursu- 
ed, there  is  not  a  doubt  but  what  the  sun  and  rains  of  heaven  will 
speedily  convert  it  into  beautiful  land. 

When  we  reflect  that  in  Holland,  England,  France,  Denmark 
and  Italy,  for  ages  past  and  at  immense  expense,  the  enterprising 
and  indefatigable  have  pushed  their  improvements  into  the  very 
Ocean  itself,  and  converted  the  grounds  beneath  into  the  most  valu- 
able portion  of  their  respective  dominions — there  cannot  exist  a 
doubt  upon  the  subject.  The  vast  labour  performed  and  immense 
expense  incurred  in  Europe  could  not,  we  know,  be  borne  by  the 
the  adventurer  in  this  country,  where  lands  are,  as  yet,  cheap  and 
labour  dear.  But  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  or  a  market,  and 
where  the  expense  to  be  incurred  would  be  comparatively  small, 
there  could  not,  I  feel  persuaded,  be  a  more  safe  productive  improve- 
ment. It  is  true  there  exist,  at  present,  many  dreadful  forebodings 
of  the  imposibility  of  converting  those  offensive  wastes,  those  deso- 
late regions,  into  wholesome  districts  and  blooming  fields,  but  they 
are  idle ;  they  are  founded  on  ignorance  or  envy,  or  have  been  creat- 
ed by  partial  defeats  or  illiberal  conjectures.  The  contrary  has  been 
proven  to  the  conviction  of  thousands,  and  thus,  is  the  goodness  and 
bounty  of  the  Creator  displayed,  in  rewarding  the  toils  and  solici- 
tude of  the  enterprising  and  persevering. 

The  destruction  of  a  dyke  from  the  violence  of  a  tornado,  is  no 
more  an  argument  against  the  principle  or  practice  of  dyking,  than 
the  prostration  of  a  dwelling  or  a  field  of  grain  by  the  same  tempest, 
is  evidence  of  the  particular  displeasure  of  the  Deity,  or  of  the  folly 
of  the  husbandman.  It  cannot  be  pretended  that  the  works  of  art 
any  more  than  the  productions  of  nature;  are  or  can  be,  exempted 
from  the  operation  of  natural  causes. 


170  OiN  RECLAIMING 

It  is  proper,  however,  to  remark  that  the  inexperienced  who  un- 
dertake improvements  of  this  description,  usually  defeat  iheir  object,* 
in  the  first  instance,  by  making  the  dykes  too  small  As  it  is  com- 
monly considered  an  experiment,  as  likely  to  fail  as  to  succeed,  the 
projector  naturally  feels  a  relu<  tancein  venturing  a  large  expenditure 
upon  so  uncertain  an  object — hence  the  many  disheartening  failures, 
on  it  first  trial,  by  the  breaking  in  of  the  bank  alone. 

But  I  fear  I  am  in  danger  of  exhausting  your  patience;  and  yet,  I 
have  a  great  deal  to  say  in  reply,  to  the  numerous  questions  pro- 
pounded by  your  intelligent  correspondent  I  shall  answer  them  in 
order  as  far  as  my  experience  enables  me,  and  with  as  much  brevity 
as  possible. 

First. — i  Have  reclaimed  marshes  succeeded  in  the  productions  of 
artificial  grasses,  where  not  more  than  20  or  24  inches  of  fall  could 
be  commanded  at  any  time ;  and    where  during  the  prevalence   of 
particular  winds  which  maintain  an  unusual  and   protracted   eleva- 
tion of  the  tides,  not  more  than  half  that  fall  can  be  had  for  several 
days  in  succession  ?' 
The  first  question  I  am  unable  to  answer. — We  consider  it  neces- 
sary to  drain  full  three  feet,  and  my  impression  is  that  five  feet  would 
be  better  than  three.     Our  grounds  are  drained  three  and  a  half  and 
four  feet,  and  we  have  observed  uniformly,  that  the  best  and  deepest 
drained  lots^  were  the  most  productive — where  the  tides  fall  no  low- 
er than  two  feet  below  the  level  of  the  marsh,  wind  mills  might  be 
made  use  of  to  great  advantage. 

2d. — *  Have  reclaimed  marshes  been  made  valuable  for  grass, 
c  whose  surface  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots  to 
c  the  depth  of  eight  or  nine  inches  ;  and  if  so,  was  the  turf  pared  off' 
i  and  burnt,  or  was  it  permitted  to  undergo  a  gradual  decomposition, 
(  after  the  natural  grass  was  destroyed  ?' 

3d. — 6  In  grounds  thus  covered  with  turf,  has  the  plough  been 

*  used  to  prepare  them  for  the  reception  of  grass  seeds ;  or  has  it 
(  been  found  sufficient  to  tear  the  surface  with  harrows,  and  then  to 
;  sow  the  seed  ?? 

I  shall  couple  my  answers  to  both.  Our  grounds  consist  of  clay, 
blue  mud,  mellow  ground  and  tough  roots.  When  we  commenced 
ploughing,  the  marshes  in  many  places,  consisted  entirely  of  tough 
roots,  to  the  depth  of  from  4  to  20  feet,  and  yet  this  ground  by 
ploughing,  in  36  months  from  the  time  of  embanking,  produced 
from  one  to  two  tons  of  timothy  hay  to  the  acre — and  upon  somelotg 
only  harrowed  with  a  strong  ironed  toothed  harrow,  we  had  nearly 
as  good  grass,  the  same  season.  But  we  prefer  the  plough,  for  when 
the  sod  is  once  fairly  broken,  you  may  consider  the  land  as  in  a  di- 
rect road  to  permanent  improvement.  These  experiment  were  made 
upon  the  most  inveterate  salt-marsh. 

4th — '  May  it  not  be  received  as  a  tolerably  correct  standard,  by 
c  which  to  ascertain  the  value  of  marsh  soil,  that  the  neaier  it  ap- 
i  proaches  to  pure  blue  mud,  or,  in  other  words,  the  shallower  the 

*  superficial  stratum  of  roots,  the  better  it  is  ?? 

We  prize  the  blue  mud  very  highly,  and  it  is  the  general  opinion, 
where  it  is  found,  that  there  the  soil  is  the  best.     But  our  turf  grounds 


SALT-MARSHES.  IT?- 

jsq  called  in  contradistinction  to  the  blue  mud)  after  having  been 
ploughed  awd  cropped  two  seasons,  have  turned  into  earth,  and  be- 
came beautiful  mould,  resembling  garden  ground.  I  had  as  fine 
whf-it  and  rye  as  any  in  this  country,  this  season,  upon  this  descrip- 
tion oi  land;  and  had  corn  also.  But  the  ground  was  well  drained* 
The  recovery  of  marshes,  I  conceive,  depends  upon  two  achieve- 
ments only,  the  exclusion  of  the  floods  and  the  deep  draining  of  the 
land.  Where  these  are  effectually  done  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
will  naturally  follow. 

5th. — '  In  reclaimed  marshes,  whose  situation  does  not  admit  of 
'  any  permanent  current  of  fresh  water  through  their  ditches,  and 
4  where,  of  course,  during  periods  of  drought  similar  to  that  of  the 

*  late  summer,  the  salt  water  which  passes  through  the  sluices,  occu- 
pies the  bottom  of  their  ditches  in  an  undiluted  state,  will  grasses 
succeed  ?? 

This  question,  I  am  unable  positively  to  answer. 

6th — i  Are  there  any  sluices  or  trunks,  with  valves  opening  tch 

*  wards  the  salt  water,  so  tight  as  not  to  admit  some  salt  water  ?' 

7th — *  What  is  the  best  plan  of  their  construction  ?? 

As  our  tracts  of  marsh  are  large,  one  containing  1000  and  the 
©ther  300  acres,  they  require  large  sluices,  as  well  as  a-  number  of 
them  ;  we  have  seven,  and  all  of  the  same  dimensions.  Being  made 
with  great  care,  they  effectually  exclude  the  tides.  The  following 
we  have  found  to  be  the  best  construction.  A  sill-piece  24  feet  or 
25  feet  long,  of  pine  or  hembock,  a  foot  square,  is  sunk,  with  its 
ends  in  the  marsh  to  the  depth  required — into  this  two  gate  posts  9 
feet  long,  are  morticed,  with  a  beam  across  at  the  height  of  4  feet, 
so  as  leave  the  race  4  feet  clear — two  other  upright  pieces  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  gate  posts,  are  also  let  into  the  sill  at  4  feet  from 
the  gate  posts,  and  a  cap-piece  as  heavy  as  the  sill,  surmounted  on 
the  top  to  bind  the  whole  fivame.  Long  planks,  l£  inch  pitch  pine 
are  found  to  answer  best,  are  now  driven  into  the  mud,  (so  as  to  be 
nailed  against  the  cap)  from  the  edge  of  the  gate  posts  on  either  side, 
to  the  extremity  of  the  upright — in  order  to  make  the  work  more 
secure,  these  are  usually  doubled.  The  race  way  is  now  spiled  with 
the  same  kind  of  plank,  on  each  side  of  the  sill-piece,  and  driven 
as  low  as  the  maul  will  force  them — after  which  the  floors,  about  4 
feet  long  on  either  side,  are  laid,  and  for  the  greater  security,  they 
too  are  spiled  at  the  outter  end.  Such  a  sluice,  with  a  gate  that  fits 
well,  will  not  leak  a  barrel  in  a  tide — if  chips  or  grass  get  between 
the  jaws  and  the  gate,  they  are  removed  when  the  tide  falls,  but  a 
common  wicker  grating,  will  effectually  prevent  accidents  of  this 
sort. 

8th — i  Has  it  been  observed,  that  when  high  tides  prevail  several 
s  days  in  a  dry  time,  and  when  the  excavations,  so  common  upon 

*  the  surface  of  many  marshes,  are  laid  dry  by  the   evaporation  of 

*  their  water,  that  an  oozing  of  salt  water  takes  place  through  the 

*  deep  fissures  made  by  the  sun  in  the  mud  of  their  bottoms,  so  as 

*  sometimes  to  cover  them  two  or  three  inches  deep,  in  the  lowest 

*  narts  ?? 

23 


178  ON    RECLAIMING 

I  have  no  recollection  of  having  observed  any  thing  of  the  kind. 

9th — '  Does  not  the  mud  upon  the  outside  of  nil  banks  receive 
c  deep  fissures,  whilst  their  moisture  is  evaporating  by  the  heat  of 
c  a  summer's  sun  ?' 

Unquestionably — but  where  the  dyke  is  large,  the  effect  will  not 
be  injurious. 

10th — '  Is  it  common  or  necessary  to  fill  up  these  cracks  with  ad» 
c  ditional  soft  mud  plastered  over  them,  or  are  they  permitted  10  fill 
6  up  by  the  gradual  pulverization  of  the  mud  on  the  surface  by  a  win- 

*  ter's  frost  ?' 

It  is  necessary,  upon  all  occasions  to  keep  the  bank  in  order  ;  if 
these  openings  endanger  it  in  the  least,  they  should  unquestionably 
be  repaired  immediately. 

1  lth — *  What  length  of  time  will  be  required,  where  the  banks 
(  and  sluices  are  completely  tight,  to  freshen  and  prepare  very  salt 
1  marsh,  for  grass  seeds  ?" 

12th — *  Will  this  process  be  accelerated  by  loosening  the  surface 

*  with  a  plough  ;  and  has  this  operation  been  tried  ?? 

I  must  beg  leave  to  refer  to  my  reply  to  the  third  inquiry. 

13th — '  At  what  distance  apart  are  the  interior  draining  ditches 

*  usually  opened  in  marshes  not  boggy,  or  even  soft  upon  their  sur- 
*•  face  ;  and  what  are  the  common  dimension  of  ditches,  esteemed 
'  effectual,  and  sufficient  for  the  purpose  they  were  intended  ?' 

There  is  not,  nor  can  be  a  rule  to  govern  in  this  case.  The  judg- 
ment of  the  proprietor  must  determine — our  lots  vary  in  size  from 
one  to  ten  acres — care  should  always  be  taken  whether  the  lot  is 
small  or  large,  that  it  be  well  drained,  for  unless  it  is  well  drained, 
nothing  will  grow  well  upon  it ;  our  great  leading  drains  are  eight 
feet  broad  and  four  feet  deep.  The  lateral  ditches  from  five  to  six 
broad,  and  three  deep,  with  only  space  enough  at  bottom  to  scour 
them  advantageously. 

14th — <  Are  not  small  superficial  drains  of  an  angular  shape,  like 
i  the  ditches,  one  foot  wide  and  seven  or  eight  inches  deep,  very  ser- 
i  viceable  in  grass  lands  made  upon  marshes  ?' 

They  might  be,  I  should  suppose  where  the  land  is  perfectly  fresh- 
ened, but  I  doubt  if  they  would  before — the  foul  and  noxious  water, 
unfriendly  to  all  kinds  of  vegetation,  can  only  be  removed  by  deep 
drains. 

1 5th — e  In  what  manner  do  the  most  approved  bankbuilders,  dis- 
e  pose  of  their  superficial  sods  in  embanking  a  marsh,  whose  surface 
c  is  composed  of  turf?' 

Bankers  always,  I  believe,  face  their  mound  with  these  sods,  cut 
with  some  care  and  laid  up  with  some  caution.  They  brace  the 
work  and  hold  the  soft  mud  until  the  whole  settles  into  proper  form. 

16 — i  Is  it  necessary  in  very  solid  marsh,  to  allow  more  than  four 
c  or  five  feet,  from  the  edge  of  the  ditch  to  the  commencement  of  the 
c  base  of  the  bank,  which  is  not  required,  from  its  situation,  to  have 
1  more  than  eight  feet  base  and  four  feet  elevation  ;  especially  when 
t  the  water  upon  the  outside  is  perfectly  salt,  and  no  muskrats  appre- 
i  hended  ?' 


SALT-MARSHES.  179 

17th — '  Is  it  not  invariably  improper  to  open  two  ditches,  one  on 
6  each  side  of,  or  near  to,  the  bank  ?  Or,  in  other  words,  is  it  not 
c  to  obtain  the  mud,  with  which  the  bank  is  constructed,  from  a  sin- 
4  gle  exterior  ditch  ?' 

Where  the  mud  is  solid  and  there  is  no  ditch  on  the  inside,  I  see 
no  objection  to  cutting  within  five  feet  of  the  bank;  but  1  would  by 
no  means,  cut  deeper,  so  near,  than  one  spit  of  mud ;  nor  would  I 
on  any  account,  matae  a  ditch  on  either  side  of  the  bank,  not  even 
on  the  outside.  We  leave  thirty  feet,  and  sometimes  forty,  between 
the  bank  and  river,  and  cut  the  mud  promiscuously,  always  avoid- 
ing deep  holes  for  fear  of  the  rat ;  and  where  the  bank  is  made  with 
the  above  care,  there  is  not  the  least  danger  from  them. 

18th — i  Do  the  artificial  grasses  in  reclaimed  marshes  upon  the  sea 
'  board,  invariably  perish  when  inundated  accidentally  for  six  or  eight 
1  hours  by  salt  water,  very  little  diluted,  and  where  little  or  no  rain 
i  has  fallen  to  saturate  the  earth  with  fresh  water,  immediately  be- 
(  fore  such  casuality  ?' 

I  presume  not ;  it  is  said  they  do  not ;  where  such  casualties  have 
happened,  it  is  represented  that  the  most  beneficial  effects  have  fol- 
lowed. 

19th — *  Are  not  grasses  considered  essentially  the  growth  of  fresh, 
'  unsalted  ground,  much  more  capable  of  sustaining  life  and   vigour 

*  after  such  inundations  of  salt   water,  than   is   generally   imagined, 
'  especially  in  old  meadows  having  a  condensed  growth  of  timothy  ?J 

20th — i  Is  there  any  one  of  the  artificial  grasses  endowed  in  a  su- 
(  perior  manner,  with  the  power  of  resisting  the  injurious  effects  of 
i  salt  water  ?' 

I  am  unable  even  to  give  an  opinion,  upon  these  two  subjects. 

21st — '  Is  it  not  much  more  difficult  find  hazardous,  for  these  rea- 
'  sons,  to  attempt  the  reclamation  of  marshes  situated  immediately 
1  contiguous  to  the  water  of  the  ocean :  and  do  not  breaches  fre- 
(  quently  occur  in  banks  from  violent  tempests,  or  from  the  perfora- 
(  tions  of  muskrats  ?' 

It  is  both  difficult  and  hazardous,  and  unless  the  works  be  made 
sufficiently  strong,  I  consider  it  an  idle  undertaking.  If  the  marsh 
be  overflowed  with  water  ever  so  salt,  and  the  perpendicular  rise  of 
the  water  over  it  were  twenty  feet,  there  cannot  exist  a  doubt,  I 
conceive,  but  what  a  dyke  might  be  constructed  to  keep  the  tide  out, 
and  that  the  land  might  afterwards  be  drained  The  expense,  no 
doubt,  would  exceed  the  profit  ;  but  then,  I  think  it  could,  never- 
theless, be  done  and  be  made  fine  land  of. 

22d — *  Is  not  salt  water  frequently  admitted  through  the  valve  of 
the  sluices,  which  are  prevented  from  closing  by  extraneous  bodies 
being  occasionally  lodged  in  them  ?' 

23d — '  What  precautions  are  found  most  effectual  to  prevent  these 
i  accidents  ?' 

Answered  in  6  and  J. 

24th — <  What  meadows  have  been  inundated  by  the  late  violent 

*  tempest  ?     Were  their  banks  broken  down,  or  did  the  water  over- 
1  flow,  without  destroying  them  V 


180  ON    RECLAIMING    SALT-MARSHES. 

Our's  were  overflowed  in  September — 300  acres  were  flooded  a 
foot  deep,  by  the  breaking  in  of  the  dykes  in  two  places ;  owing  to 
springs  of  fresh  water,  near  the  fast  land  under  the  bank;  the  storm 
was  frightfully  severe,  and  the  tide  rose  higher  than  had  been  remem- 
bered for  fiity  years.  The  breaches  in  the  bank  were  almost  imme- 
diately repaired,  but  the  tides,  owing  to  the  continued  violence  of 
the  winds,  could  not  fall  and  the  grounds  remained,  in  consequence, 
overflowed  two  days;  after  that  it  gradually  disappeared,  and  the 
fourth  day  the  surface  was  ayain  bare.  What  little  timothy  the 
drought  spared  the  salt  water  has  not  affected  injuriously,  and  the 
grain  sown  since  the  flood,  is  of  a  good  colour  and  looks  thrifty. 

I  am  really  ashamed  of  this  letter,  and  yet  I  could  not  make  it 
less  tedious  for  the  details  of  such  a  communication  are  enough  to  ex- 
ha  (St  the  patience  of  ordinary  readers.  Such  alone,  I  presume,  as 
feel  an  immediate  interest  in  these  minute  particulars,  will  bear  with 
its  prolixity.  It  is  to  these  only,  that  such  letters  can  be  supposed 
to  possess  any  interest.  If,  therefore,  any  of  your  readers  can  ex- 
tract from  all  I  have  said,  sufficient  to  guard  him  against  a  single  ex- 
pensive error,  I  shall  be  recompensed  for  my  trifling  exertion;  and 
you,  my  dear  sir.  will  find  ample  compensation  in  the  reflection  that 
you  were  the  instrument  of  it.  I  desire,  most  ardently  desire,  that 
my  favorite  theory  should  obtain  proselytes  ;  I  feel  a  conviction,  that 
the  subject  I  have  been  treating  of,  will  attract  increased  attention 
from  the  public,  until  every  acre  of  villainous  sunken  bog  in  the 
country  shall  be  reclaimed  and  converted  into  the  richest  arable  and 
pasture  grounds.  The  subject  is  one  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
every  state  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  and  my  only  regret  is,  that 
yo'i  had  not  applied  to  some  one,  not  more  disposed,  but  more  ca* 
pable  of  furnishing  the  desired  information,  than 

Dear  sir,  your  obedient  servant. 

SAMUEL  SWARTWOUT. 


im 


ON    COTTON. 


ON  COTTON. 


Nature  of  Soil. 


XF  prime  high  land,  of  which  the  original  growth  has  been  oak 
and  hickory  has  beep  laying  out  in  a  pasture,  and  has  not  been  cul- 
tivated for  a  number  of  years,  it  is  consequently  more  or  less  bound, 
and  ought  to  be  ploughed  up,  or  turned  with  the  hoe.  Cotton  having 
a  tap  root,  and  a  number  of  fibrous  ramifications,  requires  the  land 
to  be  made  mellow,  or  the  plant  will  not  thrive  When  the  land  is 
naturally  loose  the  turning  up  may  be  avoided,  and  the  sooner  the 
ground  is  listed  the  better.  In  land  just  cut  down,  it  would  be  ad- 
visable to  plant  corn  and  peas,  the  first  year,  it  will  most  probably 
bring  a  large  crop  of  both,  which  it  would  not  do  in  cotton  from  the 
quantity  of  sour  juice  constantly  oozing  out  from  the  roots  of  the 
trees  recently  cut  down,  which  is  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of 
cotton,  for  the  plants  cannot  thrive  where  any  sourness  prevails. 
Corn  and  peas  will  live  and  flourish  where  cotton  will  not  even  grow. 
One  advantage  of  planting  it  the  first  year  in  corn  and  peas  is,  that  the 
planter  will  have  moretim^to  spare  in  lopping  up  the  trees,  to  which 
he  ought  to  bend  all  his  attention  and  force,  that  it  may  be  prepared 
for  cotton  the  next  year.  The  land  also  gets  freed  of  many  impuri- 
ties, unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  cotton. 


Mode  of  Planting. 

In  prime  land,  the  bed  or  ridges  ought  to  be  five  feet  apart,  and 
as  high  and  broad  as  possible,  particularly  if  the  land  is  low,  which 
must  be  well  drained,  otherwise  it  will  be  always  in  a  sobby  state, 
creating  sourness  by  the  influence  of  the  sun  operating  upon  it ;  in 
which  case  the  plant  always  assumes  a  sickly  appearance — the 
contrary  effect  takes  place,  where  the  land  is  well  drained.  Another 
disadvantage  arising  from  want  of  good  draining,  is  that  the  cotton 
invariably  takes  the  rust.  A  prime  negro  can  ridge  or  bed  up  for  his 
clay's  work,  one  quarter  and  a  half  quarter  of  an  acre,  and  make  the 
bed  as  high  as  requisite.  The  planting  in  holes  at  eighteen  inches 
apart,  is  preferable  to  drilling,  as  the  thinning  can  be  made  with  more 
regularity,  and  the  labour  less  ;  when  the  cotton  is  young,  you  will 
have  only  the  spots  where  the  cotton  stands,  to  hand  weed,  which  frj 
drilling,  must  be  done  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  bed. 


182  QN    COTTON. 


Time  of  Planting.  f 

The  best  time  for  planting,  is  the  latter  end  of  March,  or  as  soon 
after  as  you  think  the  weather  suitable.  Cotton  planted  earlier,  is 
apt  to  be  much  hurt  in  its  first  coming  up,  by  the  unsettled  weather, 
which  often  takes  place  in  that  month.  Cotton  planted  too  early, 
and  once  injured  by  frost  or  cold  raw  dews,  will  never  come  to  that 
early  perfection,  that  it  would  have  done,  had  it  been  planted  later, 
and  not  injured  at  all. 


Quantity  of  Seed. 

• 

One  bushel  to  the  acre  is  generally  planted ;  and  in  digging  the 
hole,  let  the  negio  be  instructed  to  make  two  chops  with  his  hoe, 
that  there  may  be  plenty  of  room  for  scattering  the  seed,  and  in  the 
thinning  a  choice  of  distance  :  leave  at  the  last  thinning  the  two 
plants  that  are  to  remain,  at  as  great  a  distance  as  possible,  to  give  air 
and  promote  growth. 

First  Thinning. 

When  the  seed  is  well  up,  and  the  plants  about  two  inches  high,  let 
each  negro  be  provided  with  a  short  bat  or  stick,  leaving  his  hoe  at 
home,  to  break  what  clods  may  be  found  on  the  cotton  bed  ;  pull  up 
from  the  centre  of  each  hole,  as  many  plants  as  you  can  hold  between 
your  three  fingers  and  thumb,  leaving  about  ten  or  a  dozen  standing; 
let  the  negro  be  directed  to  stir  with  his  hand,  the*  earth  around 
the  remaining  plants,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  with  cabbage 
plants ;  each  negro  can  go  through  five  or  six  quarter  acres  per  day. 
The  difference  will  be  immediately  perceptible,  the  plants  assuming  a 
lively,  vigorous  appearance,  particularly  if  favoured  shortly  after, 
with  a  small  shower  of  rain.  Nothing  promotes  the  growth  of  cotton 
in  its  young  sta;e  more  than  early  thinning  and  stirring  the  earth 
around  the  roots  with  the  hand. 


Second  Thinning. 


In  your  second  thinning,  which  ought  to  be  as  soon  as  you  can 
possibly  get  to  it,  the  plants  now  growing  apace,  leave  about 
seven  or  eight  in  ea:  h  hole,  observing  the  same  process  of  stirring 
and  putting  dirt  around  the  roots  with  the  hand.  In  this  thinning, 
the  hoe  can  be  made  use  of  to  haul  down  the  cotton  bed,  if  grassy, 
and  to  break  up  what  clods  may  have  been  left. 


ON    COTTON. 


Caution  against  Worms, 


183 


Should  there  be  any  apprehension,  however,  of  worms  attacking 
ihe  cotton,  which  is  very  common  at  this  stage  of  the  plant,  I  would 
strongly  recommend  extreme  caution  in  the  thinning,  or  if  the  worm 
he  actually  among  the  cotton,  not  to  thin  it  at  all,  but  to  supply 
immediately  what  is  cut  down,  and  to  make  fr^e  .use  of  the  hoe,  in 
keeping  the  field  clean  of  grass,  and  by  all  means  to  attend  to  put- 
ting dirt  around  the  roots,  which  tends  so  much  to  invigorate,  and 
hasten  them  out  of  the  wav  of  the  worm. 


Third  Thinning. 

The  season  favourable,  and  now  advanced,  the  plants  well  grown, 
and  the  danger  of  the  ravages  of  the  worm  removed;  I  would  re- 
commend to  make  a  general  and  last  thinning,  leaving  in  each  hole 
two  plants,  as  wide  apart  as  possible,  and  this  being  your  second 
hoeing,  the  negro  must  be  directed  to  haul  up  the  bed,  and  to  con- 
tinue doing  so  in  all  the  future  hoeings,  covering  the  grass  completely. 
Attention  to  keeping  the  fields  clean  of  grass,  is  of  the  utmost  conse- 
quence in  its  early  stage,  once  neglected  in  that  state  it  never  as- 
sumes that  lively,  vigorous  appearance  it  would  have  done,  had  it 
been  well  attended.  Continue  hoeing  while  there  is  grass  in  the  field, 
and  be  particularly  careful  in  your  last  hoeing,  that  the  grass  be  com- 
pletely destroyed,  for  should  it  get  up  again,  while  you  are  picking- 
cotton,  the  bottom  pods  wi[l  rot,  and  it  is  then  too  late  to  use  the  hoe. 
Another  bad  effect  arises  from  neglecting  your  last  hoeing,  it  is  actu- 
ally sowing  seeds  which  will  come  up  in  the  next  year,  and  make 
your  fields  very  grassy.  A  field  well  attended,  has  every  advantage, 
the  plants  continue  to  flourish,  putting  out  constantly  fresh  blossoms, 
and  bringing  to  greater  and  earlier  perfection,  those  already  put  out. 
Neglect  produces  a  contrary  effect,  and  impresses  the  planter  with 
an  idea  that  the  land  is  faulty,  when  the  cause  springs  from  himself. 


Picking  of  Cotton. 


The  picking  of  cotton  generally  taking  place  about  the  beginning 
of  September,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  each  negro  provided  with 
an  osnaburg  bag  which  is  slung  over  his  neck  or  shoulders,  for  the 
purpose  of  putting  the  cotton  in  as  he  picks  it  in  the  field,  and  like- 
wise in  an  osnaburg  sheet  about  the  size  of  a  blanket,  which  is  placed 
in  a  convenient  spot  near  to  where  he  is  picking,  and  as  his  small  bag 
gets  full,  he  empties  into  the  sheet,  and  carries  home  in  the  afternoon. 
In  picking  cotton,  the  negro  must  be  directed  to  guard  as  much  as 
possible,  against  a  small  leaf,  which  when  dry,  often  intermixes  with 
the  cotton,  and  never  can  be  got  rid  of  5  thereby  injuring  the  sale. 


184  ON    COTTON. 

The  general  average  in  a  good  opening  is  from  forty-five  to  fifty 
weight  eacli  negro  per  day.  Your  next  object  of  consideration  is  your 
scaffolds,  on  which  your  cotton  is  to  be  spread,  when  bought  from 
the  field,  I  would  recommend  their  being  unconnected  with,  but  con- 
tigous  to  the  cotton  house,  and  to  be  made  tour  feet  wide,  each 
scaffold,  so  that  the  negro  can  with  ease  reach  over,  and  turn  the  cot- 
ton ;  in  case  of  rain,  it  is  easily  thrown  into  the  cotton  house.  Spread 
your  cotton  as  thin  as  possible  that  the  sun  may  penetrate  the  quicker, 
it  then  requires  but  one  sun. 

Your  gin  house  where  the  cotton  is  ginned  I  would  strongly  recom- 
mend to  be  remote  from  your  cotton  house,  or  any  .other  building. 
The  many  dreadful  accidents  of  fire  that  may  arise  from  the  least 
carelessness  or  inattention  are  too  obvious  to  say  much  about.  It 
would  be  advisable  to  keep  only  as  much  cotton  in  the  gin  house  as 
you  are  going  to  gin  that  day. 

Much  success  has  attended  the  cultivation  of  cotton  on  River 
Swamps,  particularly  the  green  seed,  or  short  staple,  which  can  be 
with  more  certainty  calculated  upon,  from  its  early  maturity,  the 
frost  cannot  affect  it.  Some  years  ago  I  planted  forty-five  acres  of 
my  reclaimed  marsh  in  the  black  seed,  which  yielded  41  £  bags  of 
300  weight  each.  The  next  year  an  early  frost  in  October  destroy- 
ed my  prospects,  and  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  bags,  were  made 
from  the  same  land,  most  of  which,  wras  of  a  very  inferior  quality 
both  in  staple  and  colour.  The  green  seed  cotton  having  crept  in 
among  the  planters  upon  the  sea  board,  induced  me  among  others  to 
venture  one  hundred  and  fifteen  acres,  in  my  marsh  land  ;  the  sea- 
son was  favourable  and  the  frost  kept  off  to  a  late  period,  I  sent  to 
market  149  bags  which  by  weight  averaged  503lbs.  of  saw  ginned 
cotten  to  every  acre.  I  continued  its  cultivation,  until  within  a  few 
years,  when  the  disease  called  the  rot  made  its  appearance,  and  has 
risen  to  a  very  alarming  degree.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  discover  its  origin,  and -means  devised  to  arrest  the  ravages  of  this 
destructive  plague,  but  as  yet,  as  far  as  I  have  heard,  all  have  failed. 
Among  the  various  experiments  I  caused  a  great  many  small  fires  to 
be  made  upon  stumps  in  various  parts  of  my  fields,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  powdered  roll  brimstome  put  thereon,  creating  a  disa- 
greeable suffocating  smell ;  so  great  was  the  smoke  and  vapours  aris- 
ing, that  had  it  been  an  animal,  it  must,  I  think,  have  perished. 
These  fires,  or  rather  smokes  were  regularly  ordered  to  be  made  up 
every  evening  at  sun  down,  and  persisted  in  for  a  length  of  time, 
but  all  to  no  purpose,  so  great  was  the  devastation,  that  from  the 
same  115  acres,  only  thirteen  bags  were  produced  This  falling  off, 
and  no  hope  of  cure,  obliged  me  to  resort  to  the  highland,  where  I 
have  been  planting  black  seed  ever  since. 

The  treatment  I  observed  with  regard  to  attendance  in  my  marsh 
land.,  was  the  same  as  recommended  above  on  highland,  with  the  excep- 
tion, that  about  three  weeks  previous  to  setting  my  crop,  the  land  was 
ridged  or  bedded  up  and  immediately  flooded  deep  enough  to  destroy 
vegetation,  and  kept  so  until  the  day  before  I  was  ready  to  plant, 
when  the  water  was  returned  to  the  river,  leaving  the  land,  with  every 


ON  MANURES.  185 

particle  of  vegatation  destroyed,  and  exhibiting  a  jet  black  appearance, 
when  1  commenced  my  operations  in  setting  the  crop. 

If  you  think  the  substance  of  the  above  communcatio  1  worth  in- 
sertion in  your  paper,  and  that  it  will  throw  one  ray  of  light  upon  the 
subject,  and  be  at  all  serviceable  to  4gricola,  jun.  or  other  planters, 
it  will  afford  me  pleasure  to  suppose  that  I  have  been  instrumental  in 
furnishing  it. 

P.  S.  That  I  may  not  mislead,  I  beg  leave  to  observe,  that  when 
the  tide  lauds  are  a  stiff  clay,  they  must  be  pulverised  with  a  ploughs 
flooding  such  land,  would  be  altogether  improper,  and  the  very  object 
of  pulverization  being  destroyed  by  it. 


On  Manures. 


A  Bountiful  Providence  has  placed  every  where,  substances 
which  form  a  manure  for  the  soil ;  but  man  must  not  expect  to  set 
still,  and  that  manna  will  drop  into  his  mouth.  His  faculties  and 
reason  were  given  him  for  exertion,  and  materials  are  placed  within 
his  reach,  to  enable  him  by  their  exercise,  to  improve  his  condition. 
In  the  first  place  then,  let  every  farmer  mark  out  a  small  spot,  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet  square,  according  to  the  size  of  his  farm;  this 
spot  should  be  dug  down  from  two  to  four  feet  deep,  and  the  earth 
should  form  a  bank  round  it ;  a  few  stout  oak  posts  with  crochets 
should  be  planted  in  a  line  along  the  middle  of  this  pit,  and  shorter 
ones  should  be  placed  at  the  sides,  to  receive  strong  poles,  on  which 
to  erect  a  shed  of  common  clap-boards.  Having  thus  cheaply  made 
a  shelter  for  your  manure,  which  at  once  secures  it  from  the  sun,  from 
ram,  and  from  water  running  into  it,  while  by  removing  a  few  of  the 
boards,  you  can  admit  them  when  necessary ;  the  next  step  is  to 
bring  to  it  a  quantity  of  top  earth  or  sods,  and  if  your  soil  be  stiff,  a 
quantity  of  sand.  These  substances  should  be  mixed  and  a  layer  of 
one  foot  thickness  should  be  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  pit ;  then 
cut  down  and  collect  all  weeds  (before  they  seed)  about  your  fence 
and  farm,  and. spread  another  layer  of  them,  of  the  same  thickness, 
over  your  former  one;  then  collect  dead  leaves,  by  scraping  the  sur- 
face of  the  adjacent  woods,  and  spread  another  layer  of  them ;  sprinkle 
this  last  layer  with  all  the  ashes  and  soot  you  can  collect  about 
the  farm  ;  next  go  into  your  stable  and  cattle  yard ;  collect  all  the 
animal  manure  they  contain,  and  lay  on  another  layer  of  this  dung; 
ovtrthis  spread  a  layer  of  bad  fodder,  waste  straw,  sweepings  of  your 
yard,  particularly  after  rain,  and  any  kind  of  rubbish  about  your 
24 


T8(>  0N  MANURES. 

buildings.  You  will  find  that  your  compost  heap  will  uow  be  raised 
about  five  feet:  but  as  this  will  p'robably  settle,  as  decomposition 
takes  place,  to  about  three  feet,  you  must  begin  again  with  your 
layers,  and  proceed  until  your  pit  is  filled  up.  Should  your  soil  be 
very  stiff,  it  would  be  adviseable  to  sprinkle  two  or  three  inches  of 
sand  or  gravel  between  each  of  the  layers,  as  one  great  recommenda- 
tion of  this  plan  is,  that  you  may  suit  your  manure  to  the  nature  or 
your  soil.  Should  it  on  the  contrary  be  light,  sandy  and  porous,  a 
layer  of  loamy  clay  should  be  occasionally  introduced. 

This  mode  of  making  compost  manure,  requires  but  one  part  out 
of  five  of  stable  manure,  to  create  a  fermentation  through  the  whole 
mass.  Should  it  not  speedily  commence,  you  have  only  to  remove 
some  of  the  boards  during  the  first  rain,  and  the  moisture  and  the 
heat  will  soon  produce  the  desired  effect.  All  the  materials  for  the 
compost  heap,  should  be  placed  ready  round  your  pit  before  you 
commence,  as  perhaps  it  may  be  adviseable  to  mix  the  substances  a 
little  together,  and  not  let  them  lay  in  such  detached  layers.  Should 
the  heap  become  very  hot,  the  quality  of  compost  will  be  injured; 
unless  you  open  the  mass  in  dry  weather.  A  very  valuable  addition 
to  a  compost  heap,  is  pond  or  creek  mud,  where  it  can  he  obtained, 
together  with  the  deposits  of  leaves  and  other  trash,  found  in 
lagoons ;  and  your  committee  will  enumerate  some  of  the  materials, 
most  of  which  are  within  the  re.ch  of  us  all,  which  they  recommend 
to  be  collected  and  prepared  for  composts. 

It  is  presumed  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  every  one  who  calls  him- 
self a  farmer,  carefully  saves  all  the  dung  from  his  stock  of  all  kinds  ; 
to  increase  this,  your  horses'  stalls,  and  the  sheds  or  yards  of  your 
cattle  and  sheep,  should  be  kept  constantlv  littered  with  either  corn- 
stalks, refuse  straw  or  fodder,  dried  leaves  or  shavings.  This  will 
both  increase  and  preserve  your  stable  manure.  The  materials  for 
a  compost  heap,  may  be  made  of  sand  or  gravel ;  sods  or  top  earth 
from  lanes  and  hollows;  green  weeds  of  all  kinds;  (and  rag  or  hog 
weed  is  excellent)  dried  weeds  and  leaves ;  ashes  and  soot;  sweep- 
ings of  yards,  and  all  kinds  of  rubbish ;  saw  dust  from  mills  :  creek 
mud  and  pond  trash  ;  rotton  wood  and  bark;  tanner's  bark  and 
offal ;  house  and  kitchen  offals  of  all  kinds. 

Let  not  the  farmer  be  misled  by  opinion  that  these  necessary 
operations  will  consume  too  much  of  his  time ;  lot  him  seriously  set 
himself  to  work  in  hauling  materials  to  his  manure  pit.  and  he  will 
himself  be  surprised  to  find  how  easily  and  how  soon  compost  is 
made  when  he  has  a  little  stable  manure  before  hand. 

It  is  believed  that  one  man  and  one  boy  with  a  horse  and  cart  will, 
in  less  than  one  week,  create  a  mass  of  compost  sufficient  for  five 
acres  of  land,  and  how  many  idle  weeks  do  we  all  spend.  It  will 
be  recollected  also,  that  the  greater  part  of  this  work  can  be  perform- 
ed at  leisure  times;  the  most  proper  and  convenient  for  us,  appears 
to  be  immediately  after  laying  by  our  drill  crops,  as  the  vegetables 
will  then  be  in  full  luxuriance,  and  we  have  some  weeks  of  leisure. 
In  forming  your  compost,  the  manure  from  your  sheep  yard  cmd 
poultry  houses  must  not  be  forgotten,  and  as  these  are  of  a  hot  and 
fermenting  nature,  they  should  be  over  those  layers  least  likely  to  de- 


ON    OYSTER    SHELLS.  18? 

compose  without  their  aid.  From  six  to  ten  or  twelve  weeks  is  sufc 
llci"r<!.  with  proper  management,  to  reduce  the  compost  heap  to  a  con- 
ditioh  fit  for  application,  and  on  emptying  your  manure  piles,  care 
should  be  taken  to  turn  and  mix  the  heap  as  much  as  possible. 


On  Oyster  Shells. 


Fresh  oyster  shells  when  ground,  become  valuable  manure — » 
they  convey  not  only  animal,  saline  and  calcarous  matter  to  the  land, 
but  mechanically  separate  its  parts.  In  England  and  Pennsylvania, 
they  are  frequently  so  applied.  It  is  not  more  absurd  to  prescribe 
the  same-nostrum  for  all  diseases,  than  to  apply  the  same  manure  to 
every  soil.  4  skilful  farmer  consults  the  constitution  of  his  land,  as- 
certains its  constituent  parts,  and  endeavours  to  supply  its  deficiencies 
by  artificial  means.  If  it  require  lime  in  its  caustic  state,  he  will 
burn  marine  shells,  and  thus  obtain  one  of  the  most  pure,  and  active 
limes  which  nature  can  afford,  not  only  without  sand,  but  free  from 
all  deleterious  matter  with  which  stone-lime  is  frequently  combined. 
It  is  obvious  that  if  the  shells  shall  have  been  long  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere, the  animal  and  saline  particles  will  have  escaped,  leaving 
nothing  but  calcareous  matter  to  operate  upon  the  ground — shells; 
which  have  been  so  exposed  are  more  cheaply  reduced  to  powder  by 
fire,  than  by  any  other  means ;  and  for  the  purposes  of  caustic  lime, 
they  should  be  selected  always.  It  has  been  found  that  recent  shells, 
or  those  which  have  been  roasted  before  exposure  in  the  kiln,  become 
black,  and  so  difficult  to  be  slaked,  that  they  remain  beneath  the  soil, 
unaltered  for  a  season  and  often  more.  It  is  probable  that  the  ani- 
mal matter  distributed  throughout  their  pores,  when  exposed  to  sud- 
den heat  becomes  carbonized,  and  thus  excludes  the  moisture  necessa- 
ry *o  reduce  them.  The  chemical  agency  of  lime  in  exciting  fertility 
has  been  so  fully  explained  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  its  sensible  ef- 
fects upon  soils  are  now  so  completely  established  by  practical  men, 
that  there  is  scarcely  a  farmer  who  is  ignorant  of  its  excellence,  yet 
half  of  the  value  is  generally  lost  through  inattention  to  the  time  and 
mode  of  its  application. 

If  you  are  clearing,  land,  or  can  by  other  means  obtain  brush 
conveniently,  throw  it  in  a  pile,  and  over  it  put  a  quantity  of  shells, 
then  set  fire  to  the  brush,  add  more  brush  and  more  shells  alternate- 
ly, until  all  are  in  the  mass. 

The  whole  mass  will  soon  take  fire  and  the  oil  in  the  shells  will 
hasten  the  combustion.     A  pile  of  two  or  three  thousand  bushels  writ 


188  ON    FLEMISH    HUSBANDRY. 

burn  about  twenty-four  hours,  when  they  will  be  in  a  state  to  crum- 
ble when  trod  on  ;  they  may  now  be  carted  out  on  the  land,  and 
ploughed  in  at  the  rate  of  from  three  to  five  hundred  bushels  to  the 
acre.  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  they  will  be  perfectly  mix- 
ed with  the  soil  ;  and  are  believed  to  be  much  more  beneficial  than 
when  reduced  to  lime,  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  oily  parts  still  re- 
main. 

It  is  also  believed,  that  shells  reduced  to  a  powder  by  means  of  a 
mill  would  be  still  more  beneficial  to  the  sand  land  than  those  which 
are  burnt. 


Flemish  Husbandry. 


Sir — Much  has  been  said  in  praise  of  English  husbandry,  it  b-'ii 
well  known  fact,  that  this  vaunted  system  is  surpassed  in  many  coun- 
tries which  do  not  possess  equal  natural  advantages  In  Scotland.., 
agriculture  has  progressed  at  least  half  a  century  beyond  that  of  Eng- 
land, where  the  soil  and  climate  is  far  more  congenial  to  the  produc- 
tions of  the  earth  than  the  "  bleak  mountains  of  Caledonia."  But 
no  where  in  the  world  is  the  contrast  so  marked  as  that  between  the 
Flemish  and  English  mode  of  cultivation. 

The  average  produce  of  a  crop  of  wheat,  in  England,  is  twenty- 
four  bushels  per  acre.  In  Flanders  it  is  thirty-two  bushels.  In  En- 
gland, the  system  of  fallows  almost  universally  prevails.  In  Flan- 
ders, it  has  been  unknown  from  time  immemorial ;  two  crops,  in  many 
cases  three,  being  uniformly  raised  annually  upon  the  same  field.  The 
following  comparative  tables,  as  exhibited  in  "  Vanderstracten's 
sketch  of  the  Flemish  system,"  shew  clearly  and  correctly  its  supe- 
rior advantages  over  that  of  England. 


Produce  of  the  English  farmer,  accord- 
ing  to  the  Norfolk  course,  for  the  same 
period. 

Wheat,  24  bush   per  acre,  3  crops 

Barley,  32  do.         do.  3  do. 

Turnips,  3  do. 

Clover,  3  do. 


Produce  of  the  Flemish  Farmer,  from 
one  acre,  for  12  years. 

Wheat,  32  bush,  per  acre,  4  crops 

Barley,  60    do.         do.  4      do 
Flax,  hemp,  coleseed  and 

potatoes,  4 
Roots  and  vegetables  for  the 

food  of  cattle,  10      do. 

In  12  years,  22  crops      In  12  years,  12  crops 

The  immense  difference    in  favour  of  the  produce  of  Flanders, 
does  not  arise,  as  might  be  supposed,  from  its  possessing  a  better  na- 


ON  FLEMISH  HUSBANDRY*  198 

tural  soil,  or  a  milder  climate  than  England,  but  entirely  from  the 
different  mpde  of  cultivation,  pursued  in  these  two  countries.  At  no 
very  distant  period,  the  fields  of  Flanders,  now  so  productive,  were 
little  else  but  loose  sand  and  gravel,  whereas  the  soil  of  England, 
was  always  naturally  fertile,  and  in  part,  lies  under  a  more  southerly 
parallel  than  Flanders. 

The  rich,  abundant  and  healthy  crops  obtained  by  the  Flemish  far- 
mers, may  be  traced  to  the  following  causes  : 

1st.  The  abundance  and  judicious  application  of  manure.  2d.  Dig- 
ging all  the  lands  on  their  farms  with  the  spade  every  six  or  three 
vears.  .  3d.  The  complete  extirpation  of  weeds  and  noxious  roots. 
4th.  Regular  and  repeated  hoeing.  5th.  A  careful  choice,  and  alte- 
ration, of  grain  and  seeds  for  sowing.  Cth.  An  improved  rotation 
of  crops. 

"  The  whole  secret  (observes  Vanderstracten)  respecting  the  supe- 
riority of  Flemish  agriculture,  consists  in  this :  the  farmers  procure 
plenty  of  food  for  their  cattle — food,  which,  excepting  clover,  is  raised  • 
from  the  same  lands  which  have  already  yielded  their  crops  of  grain, 
&c.  They  keep  the  greatest  possible  number  of  cattle,  feed  them 
in  the  stables  plentifully,  and  render  their  food  palatable.  They  col- 
lect the  greatest  possible  quantity  6f  manure,  of  which  they  preserve 
the  fertilizing  salts  by  a  suitable  progress  of  fermentation.  They 
weed  their  grounds  thoroughly  and  repeatedly.  They  totally  extir- 
pate noxious  plants  and  roots,  every  six  or  every  three  years,  by 
digging  all  the  lands  on  their  respective  farms — an  operation  by 
which  they  revert  to  the  surface  a  stratum  of  fiesh  soil,  that  for  three 
or  for  six  years  has  been  absorbing  the  salts  of  manure  as  they  fil- 
trated to  the  bottom  of  the  roots ;  a  stratum  of  soil  which  has  pro- 
duced no  crop  during  the  same  period.  They,  moreover,  dress  their 
grounds  to  the  precise  poin\  of  perfect  pulverization.  These  are  ines- 
timable advantages,  which  cannot  be  obtained  by  any  plough  what- 
ever: hence  the  drift  of  the  Flemish  adage — "  Never  to  let  the  naked 
ground  lie  open  to  the  sun  in  summer  for  more  than  three  days." 

"  In  truth,  to  say  that  there  exists  a  vast  province,  in  which  the 
price  of  lands  has  been  quadrupled  within  fifty  years,  and  which  is 
neither  placed  under  a  more  favourable  climate,  nor  enjoys  a  greater 
fertility  of  soil,  than  England ;  from  which  fallows  in  general  have 
been  banished  from  time  immemorial;  in  which  the  greater  part  of 
the  lands  produce  in  nine  years  at  least  fifteen  harvests,  of  which 
those  of  grain  yield,  one  year  with  another,  as  high  as  thirty-two 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre ;  those  of  barley,  sixty  bushels ;  and  those 
of  oats,  ninety  bushels ;  and  where  the  borders  of  the  fields  are  plant- 
ed with  trees,  in  such  numbers  that  by  their  sale  the  proprietors  ac- 
quire every  forty  years,  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  the  soil ;  to  say 
this,  appears,  to  other  than  English  readers,  to  repeat  a  tissue  of 
fables.*  The  less  informed  attribute  this  anterupted  succession 
of  harvests  to  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  soil ;  but  intelligent 


*  In  Flanders,  -wheat  yields  twenty;  rye,  twenty -six;  barley,  twenty-six; 
and  oats,  forty,  for  one.  Wheat  holds  only  the  fifth  rank  in  value'in  the 
harvest  of  Flanders.    In  Fingland,  wheat  never  yields  more,  on  an  average, 


190  ON    FLEMISH    HUSBANDRY. 

and  well  informed  travellers  attribute  it,  on  the  contiary,  and  with 
the  best  reason,  to  the  indefatigable  industry  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
to  a  highly  improved  mode  of  culture,  of  the  details  of  which  they 
are  themselves  ignorant,  and  which  besides,  from  their  complication, 
and  the  great  variety  of  the  productions  of  the  soil,  require  a  profound 
study,  of  many  years  duration,  to  which  few  of  them  have  either 
the  inclination  or  the  leisure  to  apply." 

This  correct,  though  "  birds  eye"  view,  of  Flemish  husbandry, 
merits  farther  amplification,  in  order  to  furnish  distinct  data  to  the 
intf-l!gei«t  and  enterprising  agriculturist.  My  subsequent  communica- 
tions will  be  directed  to  that  subject. 

Respectfully,  yours. 

GEO.  HOUSTON 


Flemish  Husbandry. 


Sir — I  shall  now,  as  promised,  give  some  details,  respecting  the 
Flemish  mode  of  cultivation. 

1.  Manure. — A  Fleming  spares  no  cost*  nor  labour  to  obtain  this 
necessary  article.  What  his  domestic  arrangements  do  not  produce, 
he  supplies  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages;  but  it  is  chiefly 
upon  his  :attle  he  relies.  Of  these  he  rears  an  immense  number :  five 
times  more,  in  proportion,  than  is  done  by  the  English  farmer,  by 
which  he  obtains  at  least  triple  the  quantity  of  dung.  He  is  equally 
careful  to  preserve  the  liquid  portions  of  this  manure,  which  .contain 
flie  greatest  proportion  of  fertilizing  juices.     For  that  purpose,  the 

than  ten  or  eleven  for  one;  barley,  something  less  than  ten  to  one;  and  oats 
only  between  eight  and  nine  for  one.  In  some  highly  ameliorated  farms  in  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  Arthur  Young  reports  a  produce  of  thirty-six  bushels  of 
•wheat,  and  sixty-four  bushels  of  barley,  to  the  acre ;  and  that  in  the  county 
of  Kent,  soils  of  middling  quality,  equally  ameliorated,  yield  per  acre,  fifty- 
two  bushels  of  wheat,  and  the  same  quantity  of  barley.  But  in  Flanders, 
there  are  soils  which  yield  much  more  than  this — namely,  seventy-two  bushels 
of  wheat,  120  of  barley,  128  of  beans,  and  72  of  coleseed  These,  however, 
are  extreme  cases,  which  do  not  effect  the  general  question  of  comparative 
growths ;  while,  however,  they  show  that  the  amelioration  of  land,  in  any 
^ouutry,  is  calculated  greatly  to  increase  its  productiveness. 

*  It  is  within  my  knowledge,  (says  Vanderstracten)  that  villages  of  6000 
acres  of  surface  expend,  in  the  purchase  of  dung  and  other  manures,  more  than 
26,000Z.  sterling,  basides  the  enormous  quantity  of  dung  from  their  own 
cattle.     This  expense  is  immense,  but  it  is  returned  with  the  greatest  usury.. , 


ON    FLEMISH    HUSBANDRY.  191 

stalls  and  stables  where  the  cattle  are  kept,  are  paved  with  a  cement 
impervious  to  water;  a  precaution  by  which  no  part  of  the  urine  of 
the  animals  is  lost;  while  dung  pits  to  which  there  is  a  communica- 
tion by  little  channels  from  the  cattle  stalls  and  privies,  are  formed 
and  lined  with  the  same  cement,  to  receive  this  valuable  deposit. 
This  liquid  manure  is  commonly  reserved  to  enrich  the  ground  during 
the  second  and  third  year's  cropping,  and  abundance  of  the  more 
solid  manure  having  been  spread  the  first  year  of  the  course. 

Nor  is  the  Flemish  farmer  indifferent  to  the  conversion  of  weeds, 
waste  straw,  and-other  vegetable  matter  into  manure.  These  he 
collects,  and  disposes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  fermentation, 
by  which  the  whole  mass  is  decomposed  and  converted  into  a  fertiliz- 
ing substance. 

2.  Digging. — Under  this  head  I  shall  content  myself  with  the  fol- 
lowing quotations  from  Vanderstracten's  survey. 

"In  Flanders,  before  the  introduction  of  the  operation  of  digging, 
few  lands,  or  rather  none,  had  a  stratum  of  vegetable  mould  of 
eighteen  inches  deep.  It  is  art  and  industry  which  have  created  this. 
The  greater  part  of  her  beautiful  fields  were  then  only  moving 
sands,  or  soils  even  still  more  ungrateful.  Observe  then  the  methods 
which  were  used  to  raise  them  to  their  fertility.  In  the  beginning 
they  were  dug  to  a  smaller  depth,  and  upon  the  moving  sands  was 
spread  a  great  quantity  of  dung,  of  which  the  grosser  parts,  as  well 
as  the  straw,  which  was  mixed  with  them,  were  decomposed  into 
fertile  soil.  It  was  the  same  with  the  grain  and  stubble  left  by  the 
crops,  with  the  noxious  weeds  and  roots.  All  those  vegetable  re- 
mains began  to  give  fertillity  and  consistence  to  the  sands  ;  and  in 
proportion  to  the  fertility  and  consistence  which  the  soil  acquired,  the 
spade  was  pushed  to  a  greater  depth.  The  sand,  of  which  the 
spade  increased  the  vegetable  stratum,  was  already  no  longer  barren, 
because  it  was  enriched  with  the  juices  of  the  dung,  which  the  rain 
had  carried  below  the  depth  to  which  the  spade  had  not  yet  reached. 
The  abundance  of  dung  and  the  annual  supply  of  vegetable  matter, 
changed,  in  the  end,  this  moving  sand  into  the  blackest  mould, 
which  can  possibly  be  seen  in  some  places  of  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches,  and  in  others  of  two  feet ! 

"  The  methods  taken  with  the  other  soils,  more  ungrateful  still, 
were  nearly  the  same.  The  amelioration  which  the  Flemish  agricul- 
ture produces  soils  almost  sterile,  is  annually  visible ;  but,  in  all 
cases,  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  fertility  can  only  be  the  work  of 
time.  This  amelioration,  however,  may  be  produced  very  rapidly 
in  soils  which  have,  at  their  commencement  only  four  inches  of  vegeta- 
ble mould,  and  which  repose  on  a  stratum  of  good  earth,  though 
rendered  as  hard  as  a  rock  by  the  plough  share.  A.  similar  low  stra- 
tum existed  in  Flanders,  before  the  introduction  of  digging. 

"  Periodically,  every  three,  four,  or  seven  years,  the  spade,  in 
Flanders,  raises  upon  the  surface  a  stratum  of  earth,  which,  under 
the  stratum  that  has  produced  the  crops,  has  enjoyed  a  fallow  of 
three,  four,  or  seven  years,  and,  in  consequence,  has  y bided  no 
crop  itself ;  a  stratum  already  fertilized  in  some  degree,  by  the  de- 


192  ON    FLEMISH    HUSBANDRY. 

composition  of  the  weeds  which  grow  upon  it  till  the  moment  when 
it  was  buried,  and  enriched  with  the  salts  of  the  dung,  caused  by 
the  rains  to  filtrate,  during  the  interval,  through  the  upper  stratum. 
This  stratum  may,  therefore,  inconsequence,  be  regarded  as  a  vir- 
gin earth,  possessing  the  most  extreme  degree  of  fertility,  through 
the  manure  it  has  received,  and  to  which  more  is  now  to  be  added. 

"  The  operation  of  digging,  especially  in  light  soils,  is  performed 
with  great  rapidity.  A  good  workman  can  dig  in  the  space  of  a  day, 
the  twenty-fifth  part  of  an  acre,  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  at 
one  stroke  of  the  spade.  He  thus  buries  the  upper  layer,  and  brings 
to  the  surface  the  lower  layer,  which  has  produced  no  crop  for  three 
or  for  seven  years,  nor  the  same  crop  for  six  or  for  fourteen. 

I  shall  embrace  the  earliest  opportunity  of  resuming  this  interests 
ing  subject. 

Yours  respectfully 

GEO.  HOUSTON. 


!0N  THE  AGRICULTURE  OF  TUSCANY.  193 


|Vrom  sitonoe's  agriculture  of  tuscany.J 


Agriculture  of  Tuscany. 


XL  Section — On  the  Assolements. 


Tf 


HE  assoiement,  or  regular  rotation  of  crops,  forms  one  of  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  agriculture  of  Tuscany  ;  this  rotation 
continues  either  during  three  years,  and  then  the  ground  is  planted 
live  times;  or  four  years,  when  it  is  planted  seven  times  without  ever 
being  left  in  tallow. — The  three  year's  course  is  as  follows:  1st. 
Wheat  followed  by  lupins  in  the  Autumn.  2d.  Wheat  followed  in 
Autumn  by  turnips  or  any  other  forage  crop.  3d.  Indian  corn,  mil- 
let or  sagine,  (Holcus  Sorgpm,  Linn.)  The  four  year's  course  con- 
sists of— 1st.  Wheat  succeeded  by  French  beans,  (Haricots)  inter- 
mixed with  Indian  corn.  2d.  Wheat  with  lupins  in  Autumn.  3d. 
Wheat  with  forage  in  Autumn.  4th.  Indian  corn  followed  by  millet 
or  sagine. 

XIV.  Section. 


On  turning  in  lupins  as  a  manure.  As  soon  as  the  wheat  harvest 
Is  finished,  the  ridges  into  which  the  land,  had  been  previously 
thrown  are  divided  into  two  parts,  and  a  small  harrow  which  is  cal- 
led by  the  inhabitants  Spianuccio,  is  drawn  over  each  second  ridge, 
while  the  other  remains  untouched  until  the  whole  field  is  passed  over. 
The  lupin  lupinus  albus,  (Linn.)  which  is  sown  on  the  fields  thus 
prepared,  is  a  leguminous  annual  plant,  which  grows  to  the  heighth 
of  two  or  three  feet,  and  requires  no  support ;  on  the  contrary,  al- 
though its  stalk  puts  forth  a  great  number  of  branches,  each  is  hard, 
strong,  and  of  a  very  woody  fibre ;  the  flowers,  which  are  of  the 
size,  form  and  nearly  of  the  colour  of  those  of  the  bean,  are  gather- 
ed together  in  large  clusters  at  the  end  of  each  branch — and  the  long 
pods  which  succeed  them  contains  the  lupins,  resembling  large  peas 
flattened.  The  lupins  are  planted  in  the  month  of  August  or  Sen- 
25 


194  AGRICULTURE  OF  TUSCANY. 

tember,  on  such  of  the  ridges  as  have  been  harrowed,  and  are  cove?- 
ed  in  with  the  hoe.  The  ordinary  moisture  of  the  plane  is  sufficient  to 
make  them  germinate  and  grow  ;  they  are,  however,  commonly  re- 
freshed by  seasonable  rains  which  assist  their  vegetation.  The  lupin 
is  generally  well  grown  by  the  montji  of  October,  which  is  the*  seed 
time  for  wheat,  for  which  it  is  intended  to  prepare  the  land.  When 
it  has  grown  to  the  height  of  fifteen  inches,  it  is  ploughed  in,  and  left 
to  rot  in  the  land,  possessing  more  than  any  other  plant  yet  known, 
the  property  of  fertilizing  by  the  decomposition  of  its  leaves.  The 
same  operation  of  the  plough,  which  buried  the  lupin,  prepares  the 
ridge  for  the  seeding  of  corn,  which  is  then  covered  with  a  hoe  ; 
this  operation  of  burning  the  lupin  to  fertilize  the  earth  is  what  is 
called  by  the  Italians  the  sovercii  or  rovescii;  it  shows  great  knowledge 
of  the  best  principles  of  Agriculture  and  succeeds  wonderfully  in  fer- 
tilizing the  earth  The  peasants  sow  sometimes  different  plants  for  the 
same  purpose,  among  others,  they  sow  beans,  but  none  rot  so  thorough- 
ly or  so  fast  as  the  lupin,  nor  possesses  the  .power  of  fertilizing  in  so 
high  a  degree.  When  it  is  heated  in  an  oven  or  large  kettle,  so  as 
to  destroy  its  vegetation,  it  becomes  the  most  powerful  of  all  ma- 
nures ;  it  is  said  that  three  or  four  pounds  of  these  lupins,  buried  'at 
the  foot  of  an  olive  tree,  or  a  fruit  free  that  is  decaying,  will  restore 
it  to  all  its  health  and  vigour.  Careful  gardeners  use  it.  but  always 
in  very  small  quantities,  to  manure  their  orange  trees,  instead  of 
horse  manure — and  produce  from  it  surprising  effects. 

XV.  Section. — Haricots,  or  French  Beans* 

Sometimes  instead  of  lupins  which  enrich  the  earth,  such  farmers 
as  have  an  abundance  of  manure,  sow  after  the  first  year,  French 
beans  which  impoverish  it.  They  are  intermixed  with  some  grains  of 
Indian  corn  to  support  them,  instead  of  sticks  and  branches.  The 
kind  of  beans  which  bears  the  drought  best,  and  is  alone  proper  to  be 
planted  after  harvest,  is  marked  with  an  eye  about  the  germ,  from 
which  it  is  called  faggiuole  dall  occhio.  When  these  are  planted, 
the  course  of  cropping  continues  four  years,  because  it  is  not  until 
the  year  following,  that  in  which  the  beans  are  planted,  that  the  farmer 
can  sow  the  lupin  for  fertilizing  the  earth,  by  burying  which,  is  con- 
ceived by  all  to  be  absolutely  necessary. 

Second  year — Fourrages. 

After  wheat  harvest  of  the  second  year,  the  land  is  turned  up  a- 
fresh,  in  the  months  of  July  and  August,  and  the  forage  crop  is 
planted  in  September.  The  two  kinds  of  forage  crops  most"  in  use, 
are  a  mixture  of  lupins,  flax,  turnips,  and  the  annual  trefoil,  or  lu- 
pinella ;  it  may  appear  strange  to  observe  flax  ranked  among  the  fo- 
rage crops,  but  its  grain  is  very  abundant,  and  easily  gathered,  the 
plant  endures  the  winter  extremely  well,  grows  quickly,  and  fur- 


AGRICULTURE  OF  TUSCANY.  195 

nishes  an  abundance  of  leaves,  of  which  the  cattle  are  fond.  As 
the  lupin  grows  much  faster  than  the  flax  or  the  turnip,  it  is  pulied 
up  at  the  end  of  Autumn.  When  it  is  well  grown,  and  after  being 
washed,  it  is  given  to  the  cattle  who  are  fond  of  it — notwithstanding 
its  bitterness.  The  flax  and  the  turnips,  which  are  choaked  by  its 
growth,  prosper  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  away  ;  during  the  winter,  these 
last  are  drawn  as  they  are  wanted.  The  flax  is  mowed  in  the  spring, 
and  towards  the  middle  or  end  of  May,  all  has  disappeared.  A- 
mqng  the  turnips  that  are  planted^  not  one  half  ripen,  being  relied 
upon,  more  for  their  leaves,  than  for  their  roots,  in  the  nourishment 
vi  cattle.  There  are  many  varieties  in  Lucca ;  those  that  are  culti- 
vated are  large  and  long,  and  of  a  yellow  skin,  such  as  the  turnips, 
which  are  called  English  turnips.  In  the  planes  of  Pescia.  they,  are 
large,  flat,  and  coloured  red  and  rose,  the  produce  of  the  seed  re- 
moved from  one  place  to  another,  does  not  resemble  the  plant  from 
which  the  seed  was  taken. 

In  Parma  and  Milan,  more  turnips  are  planted,  than  in  Tuscany ; 
in  the  two  provinces,  with  the  exception  of  the  rice  fields,  the  as- 
solement  is  for  two  years,  and  consists  of  wheat,  turnips,  aud  Indian 
'  corn ;  or  if  it  is  prolonged  to  three  years,  it  is  in  order  to  plant  beans 
or  turnips,  twice  in  the  course  of  the  third  year,  for  the  purpose  of 
burying  them  in  the  nature  of  thesevercio.  The  prodigious  quantity 
of  turnips,  which  covers  these  rich  provinces,  must  have  been  very 
agreeable  to  Arthur  Young,  when  he  travelled  over  them.  The  lu- 
pinella,  or  annual  trefoil,  (trifolium  incarnatum,  Linnsei,)  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  plants,  which  is  cultivated  as  a  forage  crop  5  its 
beautiful  carnation  oblong  flowers,  the  deep  color  of  its  foilage,  and 
the  vigour  of  its  vegetation,  make  it  the  ornament  of  the  fields  ;  it  is 
planted  in  September,  and  rrjowed  between  the  middle  of  April,  and 
the  middle  of  May,  sometimes  it  is  intermixed  with  lupins,  which 
are  taken  up  in  Autumn,  its  forage  is  more  abundant  than  that  of  the 
#ax?  but  it  is  mowed  only  once. 


Third  year — Indian  Corn, 

After  the  forage  crop  is  gathered  in,  the  ground  is  completely 
turned  up  with  the  spade  ;  this  work  is  commenced  about  the  middle 
of  April  and  is  continued  during  the  month  of  May ;  the  preparation 
of  the  ground  with  the  spade,  always  precedes  the  planting  of  the 
Indian  corn,  which  constitutes  the  crop  for  the  third  year.  It  is 
planted  during  the  three  months  of  April,  May  and  June,'  although 
it  is  sometimes  planted  as  late  as  July,  on  moist  spots,  but  there  it  is 
of  a  particular  variety,  which  grows  more  quickly  but  produces  less, 
and  is  called  sessantino,  because  it  ripens  in  sixty  days.  Indian  corn 
planted  in  the  plane,  about  the  end  of  April,  suffers  little  from 
drought  provided  it  has  rain  about  the  beginning  of  July,  which 
most  commonly  happens.  The  corn  is  planted  on  large  ridges  with 
hoes,  and  although  it  is  scattered  with  a  great  deal  of  econjmy,  more 
is  nevertheless  put  in,  than  is  suffered  to  remain — this  done  to  pro- 
vide against  the  attacks  of  insects,  which  often  destroy  it,  as  soon  as 


19&  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FLAX 

it  begins  to  sprout — when  it  is  out  of  harms  way,  the  superfTuous 
plants  are  taken  out,  and  each  plant  is  removed  from  the  other  about 
ten  or  eleven  inches  on  the  rows,  but  each  row  is  distant  abouttwenty 
inches  or  two  feet— it  is  moulded  up  twice  during  its  growth  j  while  \t 
is  growing  it  furnishes  an  abundant  and  excellent  forage,  of  which  the* 
cattle  are  very  fond  The  Indian  corn  is  a  great  resource  to  the  peo- 
ple, and  furnishes  an  excellent  aliment.  ^ixed  with  wheat  in  bread,- 
it  gives  the  bread  a  reddish  yellow  appearance,  but  does  not  injure 
the  taste.  The  peasantry  live  chiefly  on  Indian  corn,  either  in  the 
shape  oifarinatciy  or pollenta.  To  mnkefarinata,  the  meal  is  thrown 
into  a  kettle  or  porridge  pot,  containing  boiling  water  and  season- 
ed with  butter,  oil,  or  broth,  (couillon,)  and  salt;  it  is  then  stired  for 
five  or  six  minutes,  when  the  fire  is  withdrawn.  It  is  served  up  as  a 
soup,  or  thick  couilli  7  the  pollenta  is  made  like  the  fari.na.ta,  but 
without  grease,  and  is  more  thick,  so  that  in  withdrawing  it  from  the 
fire,  it  should  be  a  solid  consrstency ;  it  is  then  cut  with  a  thread, 
and  placed  on  a  gridiron  over  burning  coals  for  some  minutes. 
These  two  modes  of  using  the  Indian  meal,  have  the  advantage  of 
rendering  very  little  bread  necessary ;  for  this  substance,  without 
having  too  much  taste,  has  nevertheless  enough  to  render  it  palatable, 
without  any  other  accompanying  food  It  is  probable  that  it  would 
be  more  nourishing,  if  it  was  better  cooked,  for  the  labouring  people 
complain,  that  it  fills  them  without  strengthing  them,  while  on  the 
other  hand  count  Rumford  remarks  that  Indian  corn,  well  prepared^ 
is  the  most  wholesome  and  nourishing  of  all  grains. 


Observations  on  the  Manner  of  Treating  Flax  in  Ireland. 

Soil. — In  selecting  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  flax  in  Ireland,  the  best 
and  the  richest  can  be  procured  is  always  preferred,  but  from  the 
number  of  persons  engaged  in  that  branch  of  agriculture,  such  is  not 
always  to  be  had.  The  country  likewise  presents  so  great  a  variety 
of  soils,  and  the  article  being  grown  in  small  quantities,  by  poor 
persons,  who  are  of  necessity  governed  by  local  circumstances,  that 
no  rule  can  be  named  for  the  exact  quality  of  ground  under  flax  til- 
lage, and  it  may  be  found  growing  in  wheat,  barley,  and  oats  stub- 
ble, and  sometimes  in  lea-ground,  but  more  frequently  after  a  pota- 
to crop,  which  is  generally  preferred  to  any  other. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil—It  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any  given 
rule  followed  in  Ireland,  for  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  flax  culti- 
vation, e>  ery  person  pursuing  his  own  plan,  some  ploughing  deep, 
others  lig(||ly,  some  sow  under  the  harrow  in  potato  ground,  without 
ploughing,  whilst  others  plough  two  or  three  times,  and  more  pre-, 
pare  with  the  spade. 


IN  IRELAND.  197 

Sowing. — The  seed  sowed  in  Ireland  is  of  various  kinds,  Riga,  ' 
Dutch,  English,  Home-saved,  and  American  ;*  in  the  South-West 
provinces,  the  latter  mostly  prevails,  and  is  decidedly  the  worst  of 
any  name,  as  it  is  subject  to  fall  at  every  blast  of  wind,  or  heavy 
shower,  and  often  brings  with  it  a  long  twining  weed,  highly  injuri- 
ous to  the  plant  ;  it  is  also  subject  to  mildew,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  to 
fire!  As  to  the  quantity  sown  to  the  acre,  it  varies  in  every  district, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  the  soil,  and  description  of  seed  ;  no 
given  rule  can  therefore  be  named,  but  on  the  data,  of  all  ground  be- 
ing equally  suitable  ;  four  bushels  to  the  plantation  acre  is  calculated 
on  the  quantity  necessary.  The  time  cf  sowing  varies  greatly,  often 
from  the  end  of  March,  to  the  first  and  sometimes  second  week  in 
June.  , 

Pulling. — In  Ireland  it  is  generally  believed  that  flax  should  not 
be  allowed  to  arrive  at  maturity,  in  order  to  render  it  fine  and  soft 
for  the  manufacture  of  linen ;  under  this  impression  the  cultiva- 
tors pull  it  green,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  take  it  at  once  with 
"the  capsule  or  seed    on  it  to  the  steeping  pool. 

That  the  seed  of  the  flax  grown  in  Ireland,  for  a  series  of  vears 
past,  would,  if  properly  attended  to,  have  added  considerably  to  the 
profits  to  the  cultivator,  may  be  estimated  on  a  view  of  the  follow- 
ing extracts^  from  the  returns  made  to  the  Linen   Board,  and  from 

'*  In  Pennsylvania  the  previous  crop  for  flax  culture  is  Indian  corn,  after 
which  the  ground  is  lightly  ploughed,  once  only,  in  the  month  of  March  fol- 
lowing ;  the  seed  is  sown  early  in  April,  and  the  crop  pulled  in  the  middje  of 
July.  The  twining  weed  that  grows  with  flax  in  America,  is  there  called 
wild  buck  wheat. 

f  If,  instead  of  suffering  the  seed  capsules  to  go  to  waste,  by  throwing  them 
prematurely  into  the  steeping-pool,  they  were  allowed  to  ripen,  it  occurred  to 
me,  that  they  might  turn  to  account  in  a  way  that  would  have  many  advan- 
tages ;  for  the  seeds  being  known  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  and  as  the 
expressed  oil  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  inflamable  gas,  now  com- 
ing into  extensive  use  for  affording  light,  we  might  render  unnecessary  the 
previous  process  of  pressing  out  the  oil,  and  prepare  the  gas  directly  from  the 
capsules.  Impressed  with  this  idea,  I  requested  of  my  friend,  Mr.  Donovon, 
Professor  of  Chemistry,  to  the  Apothecaries'  Hall  in  Dublin,  to  make  the  ex- 
periment; which  he  most  obligingly  performed  and  found  that  the  capsules, 
when  exposed  to  destructive  distillation,  afforded  the  usual  products  of  vege- 
tables similarly  treated.  Pyroligenous  acid,  tar,  and  carburetted  hydrogen, 
were  produced,  as  in  other  cases,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  gas,  which, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  burns  blue,  was  so  far  changed  with  the  va- 
pour of  volatilised  held  in  chemical  solution,  that  it,burned  white,  and  possess- 
ed a  tolerable  degree  of  illuminating  power.  There  was  also  a  faint  blue  light 
surrounding  the  white :  but  there  can  be,  m  my  opinion,  but  little  doubt,  that 
3iad  the  capsules  been  sufficiently  ripe,  and  the  oil  fully  developed  in  the  sefcds, 
the  light  would  have  been  perfectly  white. 

i  Returns  of  flaxseed  sown  in  Ireland  for  the  last  ten  years: 


Year. 

Acres. 

Year. 

Acres. 

1812, 

73,088 

1817, 

57,5jJ7 

1813, 

52,404 

1818, 

83,312 

1814, 

01,903 

1819, 

77,755 

1815, 

91,444 

1820 

91,728 

1816, 

93,695 

1821, 

80,785 

763,641 
This  flax,  if  treated  according  to  the  practice   in   the   Netherlands,  would 
have  produced,  at  the  most  moderate  rate  of  calculation  in  that  country,  of 


198  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FLAX 

•which  it  appears  that  a  sum  scarcely  credible  has  been  lost  to  the 
country. 

Rippling. — In  taking  the  capsule  from  the  flax  plant  in  Ireland, 
where  it  is  but  partially  done,  the  process  is  performed  with  ma- 
chines, somewhat  similar  to  those  used  in  Holland,  but  not  made  on 
so  regular  a  plan  as  they  are  in  that  country,  where  those  implements 
are  as  carefully  laid  by,  after  the  flax  season,  as  any  other  farming 
utensil. 

Steeping. — For  this  very  necessary  process  there  is  no  settled 
rule :  the  growers  of  flax,  as  in  the  case  of  preparing  the  soil,  fol- 
lowing each  his  own  plan;  whilst  in  the  Netherlands,  where  flax  is 
the  best  prepared,  generally  speaking,  of  any  in  Europe,  one  settled 
rule  is  adopted,  and  uniformly  practised. 

in  Ireland,  flax  is  steeped  in  every  description  of  water  that  may 
be  met  with,  without  regard  to  the  situation  or  dimensions  of  the  pools, 
and  it  may  be  seen,  in  many  instances,  several  feet  under  water,  in 
bog-holes,  whilst  in  other  cases  it  is  laid  in  running  streams,  near  the 
surface,  subject  to  floods  and  partial  dryness;  and  it  rarely  happens, 
that  two  flax-growers  follow  one  method  of  steeping  in  every  particu- 
lar ;  generally  speaking,  in  placing  the  sheaves  in  the  steeping-pool, 
no  order  is  observed,  but  they  are  all  promiscuously  thrown  in,  often 
in  large  bundles  of  various  sizes,  and  thus  it  lies,  heads  and  points 
together,  crowded  and  pressed  down  with  stones,  sticks,  or  sods,  &c. 
by  which  means  the  discharge  from  the  upper  bundles  frequently 
lodges  on  those  below,  and  stains  them  in  that  irregular  manner  so 
much  complained  of.  Again,  the  quantity  of  resin  contained  in  the 
bole,  so  unnecessarily  left  on  the  plant,  not  only  adds  considerably  to 
the  general  discharge  of  coloring  matter,  but  also  retards  the  fermen- 
tive  process  ;  to  these  injurious  practices  may  be  added,  the  bad  ef- 
fects arising  from  the  partial  exposure  of  the  plant  in  the  steeping- 
pool  to  the  influence  of  the  air,  those  parts  on  which  the  stones..  &c. 
rest,  to  keep  it  down,  being  covered,  whilst  all  the  rest  is  exposed. 

In  taking  flax  from  the  steep,  in  many  cases,  great  neglect  occurs, 
the  sheaves  not  being  washed  before  grassing,  and  it  often  happens, 
that  the  middle  ones,  on  which  the  mucilage  from  the  upper  sheaves 
had  rested,  are  exposed  to  the  air  in  that  state,  and  thus  become  in- 
crusted  with  the  drops  of  the  coloring  matter  discharged  :  of  the  ill 
effects  arising  from  the  improper  treatment  of  flax  in  this  process,  in 
many  parts  of  Ireland,  but  particularly  in  the  West  and  South,  we 
have  innumerable  instances,  and  daily  complaints  are  made  by  the 
Northern  bleachers  of  the  difficulty  they  find  in  bringing  to  an  even 
color,  linen  manufactured  in  the  provinces  of  Munsterand  Connaught. 
This  fact  has  been  stated  to  me  by  many  of  the  most  respectable  mer- 
chants in  the  trade  since  my  return  from  the  Netherlands,  and  I  am 
satisfied,  that  unless  the  process  of  steeping  flax,  as  practised  in  that 
country,  be  generally  introduced  into  the  South  and  West  of  Ireland, 
the  cultivation  of  flax  cannot  be  advantageously  carried  on,  or  exten- 
ded, so  as  to  become  an  article  of  commerce^or  can  the  lioens  made 

20  bushels  to  the  English  acre,  15,272,820  bushels  of  seeds,  and  which  valued 
at  the  low  rate  of  10s.  per  bushel,  or  £3  10s,  per  hogshead,  would  amount  to 
£7,636,410. 


IN   IRELAND.  199 

from  flax,  prepared  as  it  is  at  present  in  those  provinces,  be  as  well 
finished  for  any  purpose  as  if  they  were  manufactured  from  flax  pro- 
perly steeped. 

Drying. — The  fuel  used  to  dry  flax  in  many  parts  of  the  South 
and  West  of  Ireland  is  turf,  which,  like  almost  every  other  vegeta- 
ble, gives  out  in  combustion,  pyroligneous  acid  and  empyreumatic 
oil,  both  of  which  are  highly  coloured  ;  and  in  cases  where  flax  is 
badly  steeped,  and  the  mucillage  not  discharged,  or  strained  by  im- 
pregnated water,  the  acid  and  oil  from  the  turf  may  be  found  to  act 
as  mordants,  and  so  fix  the  colours,  that  the  most  experienced  bleach- 
er cannot  completely  eradicate  them  from  linen  made  of  flax  so  treat- 
ed.— The  difficulty  of  discharging  stains  in  Jinen,  the  manufacture 
of  the  South  and  fVest,  is  well  known  to  many  of  the  factors  in  the 
Linen  Hall  in  Dublin. 

Breaking  and  Scutching. — In  Ireland  those  processes  are  per- 
formed in  various  ways,  sometimes  by  Mill  Machinery,  with  break- 
ers and  scutchers,  and  in  other  cases  with  every  variety  of  hand  imple- 
ment that  can  be  procured,  often  of  the  most  simplest  kind,  and  such  as 
contribute  much  to  the  labor  of  the  worker,  and  proves  ineffectual  in 
execution.  In  Munster  and  Connaught,  those  imperfect  implements 
are  most  in  use,  and,  until  within  the  last  few  years,  scutching  machine- 
ry by  power  was  unknown  in  those  places.  In  Ulster,  scutch  mills 
are  in  very  general  use;  that  which  moves  vertically  is  most  ap- 
proved of  in  that  quarter,  because  it  is  said  to  take  less  power,  and 
is  less  expensive  than  that  with  the  horizontal  motion ;  the  latter 
however  are  in  general  use  in  Scotland;  but  it  seems  as  yet  a  matter 
of  doubt  in  both  countries  which  ot  the  plans  is  the  best,  so  much 
depends  on  the  skill  of  the  workmen,  the  state  of  the  flax  and  its 
quality. — It  is,  however,  necessary  to  remark  that  no  description  of 
machine,  whether  worked  py  hands  or  by  moving  power,  can  be 
peratively  useful,  if  the  flax  be  not  well  prepared  in  every  previous 
process. 


Observations  on  the  of  Treatment  of  Flax  in  the  Netherlands, 

Soil. — The  soil  preferred  by  the  cultivators  of  flax  in  the  Nether- 
lands is  a  deep  loamy  clay,  or  what  they  term  (fat  land)  free  from  weeds, 
and  capable  of  giving  wheat,  which  is  in  almost  every  case  the  pre- 
vious crop ;  except  when  land  after  producing  madder  is  to  be  had, 
which  is  esteemed  the  best  of  all ;  but  the  cultivation  of  that  plant, 
being  rather  limited,  it  is  rarely  to  be  met  in  quantity,  compared  with 
wheat  stubble ;  it  is,  however,  a  general  practice  in  that  country, 
never  to  sow  flax  but  in  rich,  good  ground, 


200  OBSERVATIONS  OK-.  FLAX 

Preparation  of  the  soil. — The  mode  usually  followed  in  the- 
Netherlands  of  prepaYing  ground  for  flax,  if  from  wheat-stubble, 
(the  general  previous  crop)  is,  after  reaping,  to  have  it  immediately 
tig  lit  y  ploughed,  and  let  to  lie  in  fallow  until  the  ensuing  springy 
when  it  is  again  lightly  ploughed,  preparatively  to  the  sowing  of  the 
seed;  but  if  grown  after  a  madder  crop,  the  custom  is  to  give  a  light 
ploughing  in  spring,  a  little  before  sowing. 

Sowing. — With  respect  to  the  seed  sown  in  Holland  and  Zealand, 
it  is  invariably  either  Riga,  or  home-saved,  none  other  being  used  ; 
the  latter  is  sown  for  two,  sometimes  three  seasons,  in  succession, 
never  longer,  and,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  Riga  seed  is  again 
sown  ;  but  some  of  the  rich  and  judicious  flax  boers,  every  year,  sow 
a  small  parcel  of  Riga  seed,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  constant  succession  of 
fresh.  When  selecting  seed  for  sowing,  either  of  Riga  ,or  home-saved, 
the  most  scrupulous  attention  is  paid  to  procure  it  of  the  best  and 
cleanest  kind.  As  to  the  quantity  sown  in  any  given  portion  of  ground, 
much  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  the  age  of  the  seed,  which 
experience  alone  can  determine  5  but  as  well  as  I  could  collect  infor- 
mation from  the  boers  on  this  subject,  comparing  their  measurement 
with  the  English  and  Irish  acre,  the  quantity  sown  bears  a  due  pro- 
portion to  that  of  Riga  seed  usually  sown  in  England  and  Ireland. 
The  time  of  sowing  is  generally  between  the  end  of  March  and  mid- 
dle of  April. 

Pulling. — In  the  Netherlands,  and  in  France,  flax  is  always 
allowed  to  arrive  at  maturity,  and  is  never  pulled  particularly  in 
Holland  and  Zealand,  until  the  seed  is  perfectly  formed,  and  the 
capsule  brown  and  hard,  so  as  to  be  easily  disengaged  from  the  stalks; 
when  in  that  state  it  is  pulled,  and  at  once  made  into  small  sheaves, 
which  are  placed  in  stocks  of  eight  to  the  stock  ;  the  root  ends  on 
the  ground,  projecting,  and  the  heads  meeting  at  the  top  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  present  the  entire  of  them  to  the  influence  of  the  air;  in 
this  way  it  remains  eight, ten.  and  sometimes  fourteen  days,  according 
to  the  state  of  the  weather ;  should  occasionly  rain  fall  during  this 
time,  it  is  considered  of  great  service  to  wash  off  the  impurities  and 
withered  leaves  that  attach  to  the  plant  when  ripening. 

Ripping. — When  the  flax  is  sufficiently  dried,  it  is  carried  to  the 
barn,  and  the  process  of  taking  off  the  seed  immediately  commences; 
this  operation  in  the  Netherlands  is  chiefly  done  by  ripples  or  iron 
pins,  about  sixteen  inches  long,  and  one  inch  square  at  the  bottom, 
gradually  narrowing  to  the  top,  and  formed  into  squares;  the  pins 
are  fastened  in  a  block  of  timber,  above  four  inches  thick,  eighteen 
inches  wide,  and  made  in  the  form  of  an  octagon,  the  upper  part 
sloped  off,  so  as  to  let  the  boles  run  down  to  the  floor;  those  pins 
are  set  at  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  asunder,  thirty  of  them  in  each 
block,  which  is  fastened  by  means  of  two  staples  and  wedges,  to  a 
two-inch  plank,  that  rest  on  trestles  of  a  sufficient  height  for  grown 
persons  to  sit  on  whilst  rippling ;  two  usually  work  at  the  same  ripple, 
sitting  opposite  each  other,  and  drawing  the  flax  alternately  through 
the  teeth.  During  this  process,  great  care  is  taken  not  to  let  it  slip 
through  the  hands,  so  as  to  entangle  the  root  ends,  which  in  every 
process  are  kept  as  even  as  possible.     When  the  seed  is  discharged 


IN  THE  NETHERLANDS.  1201 

the  flax  is  again  made  into  small  sheaves,  and,  in  every  instance^ 
bound  together  by  platted  cords  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  made  of 
strong  rushes,  that  usually  last  for  years,  and  are  carefully  put  up 
'from  one.  season  to  another;  when  the  entire  quantity  of  flax  prepar- 
ed for  rippling  has  undergone  that  operation,  the  boles  are  immedi- 
ately run  through  a  very  coarse  screen,  sufficiently  open  to  admit 
every  particle  of  waste  or  dirt  to  pass  through,  so  that  they  remain 
free  of  all  impurities.  The  waste  discharged  in  this  manner  is  used 
by  bakers  in  heating  ovens,  and  the  bole,  by  being  thus  cleaned,  re- 
mains safe,  and  the  seed  can  be  kept  for  any  time  required.  The 
mode  most  approved  of  for  taking  the  seed  from  the  bole,  is  to  thrash 
it,  which  is  done  by  a  flail,  the  handle  of  which  is  similar  to  a  com- 
mon one,  but  the  working  part  is  not  more  than  half  the  usual  length, 
about  four  inches  diameter;  the  hulls,  after  the  seed  is  discharged> 
are  sold  at  the  rate  of  two  pence  the  sack,  for  feeding  cattle  in  the 
winter ;  they  are  chiefly  bought  by  Brabant  farmers,  who  mix  them 
with  various  other  vegetables  and  carrots,  which  they  grow  with 
their  flax,  in  ground  suitable ;  and  I  have  seen,  in  Brabant  particu- 
cularly,  numerous  fields,  with  flax  standing  to  dry,  and  the  peasan- 
try weeding  carrots  that  had  grown  with  it,  and  which  appeared  in  a 
prosperous  state. 

Steeping. — This  process,  being  the  most  important  one  which  flax 
undergoes,  and  on  which  its  value  in  a  great  measure  depends,  claimed 
my  most  serious  attention,  and  occupied  me  for  a  considerable  time, 
hi  observing  it  in  detail,  as  performed  by  various  steepers,  and  with 
flax  the  growth  of  different  places.  In  general  the  steeping  pools  in 
Holland  are  similar  to  what  are  known  in  Ireland  as  trenches  of  wa- 
ter to  drain  and  divide  low  grounds,  such  as  abound  in  various  parts 
«f  the  South  and  West  provinces,  particularly  where  the  soil  is  best 
suited  for  the  growth  of  flax,  and  most  like  that  of  Holland  and  Zea- 
land. Those  trenches,  in  (he  summer  months  are  grown  over  with 
light  grass  and  weeds,  which  are  cut  a  little  before  steeping  time, 
from  the  edges  of  the  bank  only,  leaving  the  middle  of  the  trench 
undisturbed.  Previous  to  steeping,  a  sod  or  mud  bank  is  thrown 
across  each  end  of  that  portion  of  the  trench  required,  which  is 
seldom  more  than  sixty  to  eighty  yards.  In  making  those  banks  the 
mud  for  a  distance  of  eleven  to  twelve  feet  from  each,  is  drawn  with 
iron  scrapers  from  the  bottom  and  middle  of  the  trench,  and  sloped 
against  each  of  them,  leaving  a  space  of  water  free  from  weeds  and 
mud,  sufficient  to  put  in  a  set  of  sheaves,  and  admit  of  a  pool  eight 
to  ten  feet  between  the  cross  bank  and  last  layer  of  flax.  The  steep- 
ing pool  being  thus  prepared,  a  bundle  of  sheaves  is  opened,  and 
eight  of  them  laid  in  with  small  light  forks,  with  which  they  are  as 
regularly  placed,  as  if  laid  with  a  line,  each  sheaf  being  put  down 
with  the  root  end  towards  the  cross-bank,  and  the  top  end  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  pool;  when  the  first  layer  is  down,  a  second  and 
third  set  of  eight  sheaves  is  put  in,  the  root  end  of  every  layer  meet- 
ing the  hands  of  the  former  one,  and  all  placed  in  an  oblique  direc- 
tion. When  three  layers,  or  twenty-four  sheaves,  (which  is  always 
the  number  put  in  at  a  time,)  are  laid,  the  steepers,  who  are  provided 
with  scrapers  and  forks,  draw  from  the  bottom  ojf  the  trench,  mud, 

?6 


202  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FLAX    &C. 

slime,  weeds,  &c  &c.  just  as  it  comes  to  hand,  and  which  they 
place,  to  the  thickness  of  six  to  eight  inches,  on  the  flax,  leaving 
only  as  much  of  the  last  layer  uncovered,  as  may  be  sufficient  to 
receive  the  first  layer  of  the  next,  and  for  which  room  is  made  by  the 
removal  of  the  mud,  slime,  &c.  used  as  a  covering  for  the  former 
layer.  In  laying  on  the  mud.  great  care  is  taken  to  plaster  it  together, 
and  so  combine  it  as  to  exclude  the  air  and  light  completely  from  the 
flax.*  The  entire  quantity  being  thus  placed  in  the  pool,  nothing 
appears  but  a  surface  of  mud.  The  next  operation  is  to  throw  from 
that  part  of  the  trench  not  wanted  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to 
cover  the  entire  mass  to  the  depth  of  six  to  eight  inches;  although 
the  mode  of  throwing  the  water  into  the  steeping-pool  is  done  by  a 
simple  contrivance,  it  is  nevertheless  worthy  of  observation,  as  it 
abridges  labour,  and  saves  time,  points  duly  appreciated  by  the 
working  classes  in  Holland.  This  business  is  performed  by  means 
of  a  triangle  made  of  slight  poles,  placed  across  the  trench  near  one 
of  the  banks;  from  the  centre  of  the  triangle  is  suspended,  by  a 
slight  cord,  a  shute  or  oblong  box  capable  of  containing  about  five 
to  six  gallons,  and  which  lies  a  small  depth  in  the  water ;  to  the  shute 
is  attached  a  long  handle,  with  which  the  steeper  works  it,  and  so 
throws  the  water  into  a  cut  made  in  one  co*  ner  of  the  cross-bank,  by 
which  it  is  conveyed  over  the  mud ;  when  this  is  done,  the  flax 
remains  from  six  to  thirteen  days,  according  to  its  quality,  the 
temperature  of  the  weather,  and  in  some  cases  the  properties  of  the 
water  and  mud;  and  I  witnessed  myself  the  taking  out  of  flax  grown 
in  Holland  and  Zealand,  some  of  which  had  been  steeped  in  seven 
days,  whilst  others  required  fourteen  to  prepare  it.  It  is  here  neces- 
sary to  observe,  that  the  flax  growers  in  the  Nethrelands  carefully 
watch  the  flax  during  the  steeping  process,  particularly  after  the  fifth 
day,  when  they  once  in  every  twenty-four  hours  take  out  a  sheaf 
with  a  fork,  and  examine  it;  if  not  sufficiently  steeped,  it  is  carefully 
replaced  and  covered.  When  the  flax  is  found  sufficiently  steeped, 
it  is  drawn  out  with  great  care  by  forks,  beginning  with  the  sheaves 
last  laid  in,  one  sheaf  only  being  taken  out  at  a  time,  which  is  turned 
over  into  the  water  to  disengage  the  mud  from  it,  when  it  is  gently 
washed  in  the  pool,  and  left  at  the  end  of  the  cross-bank  for  that 
purpose;  after  washing,  it  is  laid  in  rows  by  the  side  of  the  pool  to 
drain,  from  which  it  is  spread  on  the  grass,  where  it  remains  until 
the  cultivator  finds  it  ready  for  breaking,  for  this  process,  there  is  no 
defined  time,  every  farmer  judging  for  himself  when  his  flax  should 
be  raised;  but  it  is  the  uniform  practice  in  those  parts  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  France  where  I  have  been,  to  grass  all  flax  after  steeping  j 
no  regard  whatever  is  paid  to  the  situation  of  the  steeping  pools  as  to 
aspect;  those  which  I  saw  in  various  places  lay  in  every  direction; 
nor  did  it  appear  to  me  to  be  of  any  moment,  in  consequence  of  the 
total  exclusion  of  the  light  and  air  by  the  covering  of  mud,  &c. 
When  removing  the  flax  from  the  field  to  the  barn,  or  store,  it  is 

*  Only  one  set  of  layers  of  sheaves  in  depth  is  put  in  each  steeping-  pool  at  a 
time,  it  being  found  injurious  to  the  flax  to  let  the  discharge  of  mucilage  from  one 
parcel  blend  with  another.  About  one  foot  of  water  is  in  the  pool  when  the 
flax  is  laid  in. 


ON  SALT  A3  A  MANURE.  203 

again  made  into  small  sheaves  nearly  of  an  equal  size,  twelve  of 
which  are  bound  together  similarly  to  what  they  were  when  going  to 
be  steeped. 

Drying. — Should  the  flax  which  has  been  raised  from  the  grass  be 
found  partially  damp,  which  often  happens  in  Holland,  it  is  dried, 
or  rather  aired,  on  what  is  called  a  kiln,  but  which  is  merely  a  brick 
building  in  an  open  space,  about  twelve  feet  long,  with  a  slight  brick 
wall  in  the  centre,  and  projecting  walls  at  each  end,  about  three  and 
a  half  feet  deep.  The  fire  pit  which  runs  the  length  of  the  entire 
building,  is  from  two  to  three  feet  under  the  surface  of  the  ground ; 
the  fuel  used  is  always  the  shoves  and  other  waste  that  drop  in  scutch- 
ing, which  is  kept  continually  stirring,  so  as  to  throw  a  regular  and 
gentle  heat  to  every  part  of  the  plant,  which  lies  across  strong  rods 
that  rests  on  each  end  of  the  projecting  walls ;  when  the  flax  can  be 
cleaned  without  this  process,  it  is  so  done ;  but  when  necessary,  it 
is  performed  with  the  greatest  care;  immediately  after  the  flax  is 
sufficiently  aired,  it  is  put  in  a  small  building  air-tight,  where  it  re- 
mains until  it  cools:  putting  flax  in  this  building  after  airing,  is,  I 
believe,  what  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  its  being  stoved  in  Holland 
previous  to  cleaning,  as  I  could  not  learn  in  the  course  of  my  in- 
quiries on  that  subject,  that  such  a  practice  had  ever  existed. 

Breaking  and  Scutching. — In  the  Netherlands,  flax  is  always 
broken  and  scutched  by  hand  machines,  for  the  most  part  with 
breakers  and  scutchets,  similar  to  those  known  in  many  parts  of 
England,  where  flax  is  much  grown,  and  known  also  in  some  parts 
of  Ireland.  In  one  part  of  Flanders,  a  hand  machine,  is  used,  and 
it  appears  to  be  very  applicable  to  those  districts  where  flax  is  grown 
in  small  quantities,  and  does  not  arrive  to  that  length  and  strength 
of  staple,  produced  in  the  rich  grounds  of  many  parts  of  Munsten 
In  no  instance,  however,  could  I  discover  that  any  kind  of  machinery 
worked  by  moving  power  was  ever  used  in  Holland;  but  it  is  worthy 
of  remark,  that  throughout  the  Netherlands,  the  flax  plant  is  so  care- 
fully attended  to,  in  every  operation,  that  it  breaks  and  dresses  with 
great  facility,  and  comparative  ease,  and  presents  a  more  finished 
and  better  article,  than  is  to  be  found  in  most  other  countries. 


On  Salt  as  a  Manure. 


Sir — As  agricultural  occurrences  turnup,  I  mention  them,  that 
we  may  preserve  them;  for  use,  or  consideration.  A  Mr.  George 
Redd  of  Frederick  county  Virginia,  called  on  me  with  a  little 
pamphlet  he  has  published;  entitled  "A  late  discovery  &c.  relative 
to  fertilizing  poor  and  exhausted  lands  "  &c.  1  found  this  "late  dis- 


ZU4  ON  SALT  AS  A  MANURE. 

covery,?  consisted  in  the  use  of  common  salt  as  a  manure,  applied 
in  small  quantities.  His  means  of  discovery  were,  at  first  the  acci- 
dental observations  of  the  moisture  produced  by  salt  in  the  driest  sea- 
sons; and  the  great  resort  of  earth  worms,  to  places  on  which  pickle  or 
salt  had  been  thrown.  I  know  that  those  worms  are  attracted  to  such 
places  ;  but  if  they  remain  but  a  short  time  there,  they  die.  I  told 
him,  that  when  a  boy,  it  was  my  habit  to  sprinkle  salt,  or  salt  and 
watfr,  in  dry  seasons,  to  cause  the  assemblage  of  earth  worms,  and 
furnish  myself  with  bait  for  angling;  and  I  was  never  disappointed. 
I  related  my  frequent  experiments  with  salt,  on  acres  divided  into 
square  perches,  at  rates  from  twenty  bushels  to  half  a  bushel  per 
acre  :  and  my  frequent  top  dressing  in  every  way.*  And  although  I 
found  the  smaller  quantities  the  most  successful,  I  had  still  doubt3 
about  its  general  utility,  as  a  manure  of  any  certain  efficacy.  I  read 
to  him,  from  page  171  of  our  memoirs,  the  opinion  I  there  give  in 
these  words.  "  It  is  not  well  ascertained  that  common  salt  (muriat 
of  soda)  is  a  manure.  If  it  is,  it  acts  by  its  septic  quality,  when  ap- 
plied in  small  quantities."  His  exclamation  was — "  Then  it  is  a  ma- 
nure, and  acts  as  thou  hast  supposed,  I  know  it  by  numerous  facts, 
and  profitable  experiments."  He  is  not  a  farmer  by  profession  ;  and 
his  pamphlet  shows  him  not  to  be  acquainted  with  principles  of  the 
art.  His  theories  are  heteredox  and  whimsical.  Among  other  im- 
proprieties, he  proposes  the  mixture  of  salt  with  gypsum  ; — decidedly 
ruinous  to  both.  He  has  a  small  farm  ;  but  is  a  mechanic  ; — I  think 
in  wire  work  His  facts  are  worthy  of  attention.  He  ploughs  in 
the  fall ;  or,  if  practicable,  in  the  winter,  and  early  in  the  spring. 
There  he  falls  in  with  my  experience  ;  and  probably  this  may  be  the 
secret  in  a  great  measure,  of  part  of  his  success.  The  strewing  the 
salt  must  be  before  vegetation  begins  in  the  spring;  and  never  to  ex- 
ceed one  bushel  per  acre,  either  in  substance  or  diluted  with  water, 
and  mixed  with  two  bushels  of"  virgin  mould  where  fallen  trees  had 
lain  and  rotted,  or  from  marshy  land,  or  slackened  ashes."  The 
compound  must  be  dry  and  friable.  His  average  per  acre  seems  to 
be  three  pecks  of  salt,  mixed  in  the  compound,  so  as  to  facilitate  its 
being  the  better  and  more  equally  strewed.  He  applies  it  to  all  vege- 
table products ;  whether  on  the  farm,  or  in  the  garden.  And  he  gives 
instances  of  happy  effects  in  the  orchard;  and  on  all  fruit  trees  He 
deepens  his  spots  where  Indian  corn  is  planted  ;  and  puts  therein  a 
table  spoonful  of  salt,  or  a  handful  of  the  mixture.  He  is  a  friend  to 
moderate  steeping  of  grain  in  weak  salt  and  water,  for  seed ;  but  not 
to  brines,  strong,  or  long  continued,  as  steeps.  He  has  applied  the 
Salt  or  mixture  to  cotton,  with  great  success;  and  says,  "  The  same 
mixture  will  answer  equally  well  for  wheat,  rye,  com  and  tobacco." 
Also  hemp  and  flax  are  benefitted  by  either  the  salt  alone,  or  the  mix- 
ture. It  does  not  succeed  on  clay  soils,  not  well  pulverized.  He 
gives  instances  of  great  improvement  by  sowing  a  bushel  of  salt  per 
acre,  or  that  quantity  in  his  compound,  on  grass  lands.  He  told  me 
that  Lord  Fairfax  in  Virginia  practised  this  many  years  ago  on  ti- 

*These  experiments  were  made,  and  often  repeated,  more  than  30  years  ago. 
Occasionally  I  have  since  tried  some  of  them.  But  I  have  Dever  been  encon. 
raged  to  pursue  the  practice  to  any  great  extent. 


ON  THE  TAIL  MEDOW  OAT  GRASS.       205 

mothy  grass,  and  doubled  its  product ;  as  he  was  informed  by  an  old 
servant  of  that  nobleman.  I  give  you  this  account  from  his  pamphlet 
and  conversation.  He  reprobates  all  applications  of  salt  in  targe 
quantities;  as  being  as  injurious,  as  are  the  smaller  portions  benefici- 
al. He  top  dresses  with  salt,  or  the  compound,  at  the  rate  mentioned, 
all  crops  of  either  spring  or  winter  grain  ;  and  prefers  strewing  it  in 
moist  weather.  He  says  that  others  in  his  neighbourhood  are  in  the 
practice,  which  is  gaining  much  credit  among  those  who  adopt  it.  I 
think  it  best  to  make  trial  of  his  suggestions,  though  his  panacea 
seems  good  for  too  many  things  ;  and  have  no  reason,  from  his  ap- 
pearance, to  doubt  the  verity  of  his  facts.  Be  they  ever  so  apparent- 
ly improbable,  the  experiment  will  cost  little,  of  either  labour  or  ex- 
pense. The  gantelope  I  ran,  in  early  life,  under  the  lash  of  prejudice, 
when,  almost  alone,  I  began  to  disseminate  the  uses  and  efficacy  of 
small  quantities  of  plaister  of  Paris ;  has  taught  me  never  to  treat 
with  neglect  or  contempt,  relations  of  experiments  in  husbandry ; 
though  they  may  appear  improbable,  or  be  unaccountable  :  especial- 
ly when  test  is  easy,  and  cheap,  Lord  Dundojiald  condemns  salt  in 
large  quantities;  but  mentions  the  profitable  use  of  sea  water ;  in 
which  there  is  only  one  bushel  and  a  half  of  salt  to  the  ton.  Darwin 
is  opposed  to  the  use  of  salt  as  a  manure.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  im- 
provement made  by  the  hay  of  our  salt  marshes,  applied  as  manure. 
Plaister  will  not  succeed,  where  this  hay  is  used. 

An  old  farm-servant  reminds  me  of  a  remarkable  fact.  He  was 
employed  in  my  experiments  with  salt ;  and  scattered  it  in  broad 
stripes  across  the  fields,  in  various  quantities.  The  salted  stripes  were 
visible  at  great  distances,  especially  in  winter;  being  free  from  hoar 
frosts,  or  slight  snows ;  when  all  other  parts  were  covered.  Nor 
would  severe  frosts  operate  so  much  on  them,  as  on  other  parts.  They 
continued  open,  dry,  and  free  from  frost,  when  all  the  surrounding- 
grounds  were  deeply  and'firmly  frozen.  He  says  I  strewed  salt  round 
fruit  trees  ;  to  keep  off  frosts,  and  increase  their  vigor.  But  in  some 
cases,  having  salted  too  heavily .  the  trees  were  injured.  In  others,  it 
appeared  to  be  very  salutary. 

I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

RICHARD  PETERS 


On  the  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass. 

A  new  kind  of  imported  grass  seed  has  lately  been  received  here 
from  New- York,  called  the  Tall  Meadow  Oats,  which  is  said  to  be 
preferable  to  any  other  grass  in  the  United  States.  It  is  described  by 
Dr.  Henry  Muhlenburg  of  Lancaster,  in  Pennsylvania,  as  follows  : 

"  This  grass  is  of  all  others  the  earliest,  latest,  and  best  gr  is  for 
green  fodder  and  hay  5  it  blossoms  about  the  middle  of  May  with  red 


m 


206       CORRECTIVES  OF  ILL-CONSTITUTED  SOILS. 

Clover,  and  the  seed  ripens  a  month  after.  It  grows  best  in  a  Clover 
soil,  and  rises  to  a  height  of  from  five  to  seven  feet — it  ought  to  be  cut 
for  hay  in  blossom,  about  the  end  of  May.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
in  the  fall  or  spring,  with  or  without  grain,  and  must  be-brushed  in  or 
lightly  harrowed.  If  mixed  with  Clover,  it  will  make  good  upland 
meadow.  Horned  cattle  prefer  this  grass  to  all  others,  but  some  horses 
do  not  relish  it  green.  It  must  be  pastured  or  cut  at  least  three  times 
in  a  season.  If  suffered  to  grow  old,  it  will  become  straw  like  :  when 
intended  for  hay  it  must  be  salted  "* 

A  few  years  since  I  procured  a  bushel  of  the  seed,  but  it  almost 
wholly  failed.  I  have  lately  procured  from  Thornburn's  seed  store 
in  New- York  some  good  seed,  which  I  have  planted,  and  it  has  come 
up  well — our  horses  are  very  fond  of  it  green.  It  ripens  so  early,  the 
seed  will  shell  out  and  be  lost,  if  not  carefully  attended  to.  The  seed 
sown  in  May  or  June,  may  produce  seed  the  next  fall ;  if  not,  it  will 
be  prepared  to  seed  next  June.  It  is  said  it  will  do  well  for  ten  years 
or  more  without  ploughing  it  up. 

I  take  the  liberty  to  send  you  herewith  a  quart  of  the  seed,  and  re- 
quest you  to  distribute  it,  in  small  quantities,  among  the  members  of 
the  Society,  if  any  should  wish  it.  It  is  commonly  sown  in  rows  in 
gardens  the  first  year  ;  half  a  gill  or  a  gill  will  be  sufficient  to  begin 
with.  It  is  said  to  be  spreading  fast  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
the  neighbouring  States ;  it  will  be  forwarder  there  than  in  Massachu- 
setts. It  was  imported  from  Germany,  and  will  undoubtedly  flourish 
in  any  part  of  the  United  States.  If  it  answers  the  description,  it  will 
be  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  country — but  perhaps  you  are  already 
supplied. 

I  am,  with  respect  and  esteem,  your  humble  Servant, 

JUSTIN  ELY. 


Correctives  of  Ill-Constituted  Soils. 

The  following  are  simple  and  efficacious  correctives  of  some  bad 
ingredients  in  soils,  or  the  excess  of  some  good  constituent  ;  the  pre- 
sence of  which  frequently  disappoints  even  the  skilful  cultivator,  when 
either  the  true  cause  is  not  suspected,  or  an  appropriate  remedy  is 
not  known. 

1.  A  farmer  with  a  great  portion  of  common  skill  is  often  baffled 
by  Iron  in  its  acid  combinations.  If  on  washing  the  specimen  of  ste- 
rile soil,  it  is  found  to  contain  the  salts  of  Iron,  Sulphate  of  Iron,  or 
any  acid  matter,  it  may  be  ameliorated  by  a  top-dressing  of  quick 
lime  ;  which  converts  the  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  into  a  manure. 

*  Willick's  Domestic  Encyclopedia,  Aaaer.  Edit.  Vol.  II,  part  2,  page  19 1. 


CORRECTIVES  OF  ILL-CONSTITUTED  SOILS.        207 

2.  If  there  be  an  excess  of  pure  calcareous  matter  (chalk  of  lime) 
in  a  soil,  its  constitution  may  be  improved  by  turning  in,  in  a  green 
state,  some  of  those  vegetables  which  possess  the  greatest  quantity  of 
acid  ;  also  by  the  application  of  sand  or  of  clay,  with  a  small  propor- 
tion of  oxide  of  iron  (blacksmith's  sweepings)  not  exceeding  one  twen- 
tieth part.  The  same  object  may  be  obtained  by  irrigating  with  any 
calybeate  water  (water  containing  iron)  or  by  the  addition  of  peat  con- 
taining vitriolic  (i  e.  sulphuric)  salts ;  both  which  are  calculated  to 
turn  lime  or  chalk  into  gypsum.*  See  under  vii.  5.  why  gypsum  is 
sometimes  beneficial  and  sometimes  not 

3.  When  an  excess  of  carbonate  of  lime  (charcoal  united  to  lime) 
requires  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  be  modified,  gypsum  applied  as  a 
manure,  also  oxide  of  iron  as  a  corrective,  seems  to  produce  the  very 
best  effects.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  mild  lime  in  combination  with 
charcoal  absorbed  from  decayed  vegetable  or  animal  matter.  The 
diversified  effects  of  lime  as  a  manure -are  explained  under  vii.  1. 

4.  Soils  redundant  in  sand  are  benefited  by  a  top-dressing  of  peat 
or  other  vegetable  matter,  or  of  decayed  animal  matter,  or  by  a  mix- 
ture of  clay.     Also  if  the  sand  be  not  calcareous,  by  marie. 

5.  An  excess  of  vegetable  matter  is  to  be  removed  either  by  burn- 
ing, (See  iii.  Paring  and  Burning)  or  by  the  application  of  earthy 
materials.  The  fundamental  step  in  the  improvement  of  peat  land, 
or  a  hog  or  marsh,  is  draining.  Soft  black  peats,  after  being  diained, 
are  often  made  productive  by  the  mere  application  of  sand  or  day,  as 
a  top-dressing  :  sand  is  greatlv  to  be  preferred.  When  peats  are  acid, 
or  contain  ferruginous  salts,  calcareous  matter  is  absolutely  necessa- 
ry in  bringing  them  into  cultivation.  When  they  abound  in  the  roots 
and.  branches  of  trees,  the  wood  must  either  be  grubbed  up  and  car- 
ried off,  or  destroyed  by  burning  ;  so  when  the  face  of  peat  is  incum- 
bered by  living  plants  containing  much  woody  fibre,  and  therefore  not 
proper  to  be  ploughed  in  the  ground,  the  field  must  be  cleared  by  one 
of  the  same  methods/!" 

6.  Where  there  is  a  redundancy  of  clay  in  a  soil,  (and  if  thf  quan- 
tity of  clay  exceed  one  sixth  of  the  general  mass,  it  is  desirable  to  re- 
duce the  proportion)  one  of  the  best  dressings  which  can  be  applied 
is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  mild  lime  ;  the  rubbish  of  mortar  containing 
both  these  materials,  is  an  excellent  thing  to  improve  the  telture  of 
clayey  soil.  Clay  appears  to  receive  no  improvement  from  lime 
alone.  Sea-sand  may  be  used  alone  with  good  effect.  It  vould  be 
also  highly  beneficial  to  introduce  as  much  fermented  dung  or  decay- 
ed vegetable  matter  as  would  entitle  the  land  to  the  denomination  ot 
of  a  loam. 


*  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  p-  141,  226.        t  Ibid,  p,  142, 


20&  or*  MILLED 


Millet. 


I'. 


I  herewith  send  you  a  bushel  of  millet  for  seed,  which  you  may 
present  to  the  "  Fredericksburg  Agricultural  Society,"  or  dispose  of 
in  such  manner  as  you  think  proper. 

I  am  engaged  in  a  pretty  extensive  course  of  experiments  to  ascer- 
tain the  comparative  value  of  this  grain,  the  results  of  which  I  shall 
hereafter  make  public.  In  the  mean  time,  for  your  information,  I 
will  state  a  lew  facts  with  regard  to  it. 

One  acre  and  half  of  very  indifferent  land,  such  as  could  not  pro* 
duce,  as  a  maximum  crop,  more  than  fifteen  bushels  of  corn  per  acre, 
yielded  of  millet  the  present  year,  thirty  one  and  a  half  bushels — 
twenty-one  bushels  per  acre.  The  excessive  drought  which  dimi- 
nished my  corn  crop,  nearly  haif,  appeared  to  have  no  injurious  ef- 
fect upon  the  millet.  #  The  conclusions,  I  think,  may  fairly  be  drawn, 
that  millet,  ceteris  paribus,  is  much  more  productive  than  corn,  and 
no  wise  liable  to  injury  from  the  drought  of  our  summer  months. 
Perhaps,  my  opinion  is  premature. 

The  weight  of  millet  is  fifty-five  and  a  half  pounds  per  bushel,  and 
by  the  best  possible  test,  viz.  the  scales,  I  find  that  of  the  husk  or  out- 
er covering  to  be  thirteen  and  a  half  per  centum — leaving  a  net  of  for- 
ty-eight pounds  to  the  bushel  nearly. 

To  ascertain  its  nutricious  qualities,  I  took  two  pigs  of  equal 
weight;  (viz.  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds)  and  put  them  in  separate 
enclosures,  and  fed  the  one  on  boiled  millet  and  millet  meal,  and  the 
other  en  corn  prepared  in  the  same  manner.  In  fifteen  days  I  killed 
them.  The  net  weight  of  that  fed  on  millet  was  one  hundred  and  two 
pounds,  and  that  of  the  other  eighty-six  pounds.  Thus  the  usual  de- 
ductions being  made,  the  first  gained  28  and  two  thirds  pounds 
and  the  other  twelve  and  two  thirds  pounds  in  fifteen  days.  An  ox 
taken  fibm  the  yoke  and  fed  five  weeks  on  equal  of  corn  meal  and 
millet  neal,  when  slaughtered  a  few  days  since,  was  prime  beef, 
weighing  five  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  net. 

For  stock  of  any  kind  I  am  prepared  to  say,  that  millet  is  as  good  or 
better  thin  any  grain  of  which  we  are  in  possession.  It  should  be 
planted  early  in  April,  in  rows  four  feet  distant,  and  one  foot  or  fif- 
teen inches  apart  in  the  drill.     It  requires  about  as  much  work  as  corn 

The  meal  of  millet  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  chocolate,  and  I 
send  you  a  small  parcel  for  trial.  Boil  two  or  three  spoonfuls  in  three 
pints  of  water,  add  thereto  one  pint  or  somewhat  less  of  milk,  and  a 
piece  of  butter,  the  size  of  a  nutmeg ;  decant  and  sweeten  to  suit  the 
palate.  I  think  it  the  best  substitute  with  which  I  am  acquainted, 
"  prepared  rye"  not  excepted. 

I  hope  some  of  your  agricultural  friends  will  be  disposed  to  culti- 
vate a  little  millet  next  year,  should  that  be  the  case  will  you  request 
them  to  inform  me  by  letter  of  their  success.  I  am  anxious  that  a 
fair  trial  should  be  made  with  it  in  different  soils.  I  am  sanguine  in 
the  belief,  that  it  will  be  no  unimportant  desideratum  in  rural  and  do- 
mestic economy. 


FORCE  OF  WORK  HORSES,  &C.  2Q9 


JfEOM  RADCUFf's  AGRICULTURE  OF  FLANDERS. 3 


Force  of  Work  Horses  and  Manner  of  Feeding, 

Eight  horses  perform  the  entire  work  of  the  200  acres,  and  are 
in  the  highest  possible  condition.  They  are  of  the  most  compact 
kind  of  Flemish  horse,  and  do  not  exceed  15£  hands  in  height; 
chiefly  roan  and  chesnut  in  color.  As  the  banks  of  the  river  supply 
good  hay,  in  this  district  they  are  indulged  with  that  species  of  food, 
which  is  not  the  case  in  other  parts  of  Flanders  \  but  they  aw^ajso 
fed  upon  straw,  chiefly  of  rye,  and  upon  oats  with  chopped  straw  in 
every  feed,  and  after  every  feed,  a  bucket  of  water,  richly  whiten- 
ed with  rye,  or  oatmeal.  A  vessel  of  this  composition  is  in  every 
stable;  nor  are  the  horses  suffered  to  have  any  other  drink.  The 
quantum  of  food  in  24  hours  for  each  horse,  in  winter,  is  15  lb.  of 
hay,  10  lb.  of  sweet  straw,  and  8  lb.  of  oats;  in  summer,  clover  is 
substituted  for  hay;  the  other  feeding  remains  the  same;  and  the 
white  water  is  never  omitted :  on  this  they  place  a  chief  reliance. 
The  allowance  of  oats  is  but  moderate,  and  yet  the  horses  are  in  su- 
perior condition :  the  chopped  straw  contributes  much  to  this,  in 
converting,  by  the  mastication  necessary,  every  grain  of  corn  to 
nutriment.  The  use  of  it  is  so  universally  approved  throughout 
Flanders,  that  in  every  town  it  is  sold  by  retail,  and  if  generally 
adopted  with  us,  it  could  not  fail  to  improve  fhe  condition  of  work- 
ing horses,  and  lessen  the  expense  of  their  provender.- 

In  Flanders,  a  farmer  will  work  fifty  acres  with  two  horses;  and 
by  the  regularity  of  his  care  and  keep,  will  preserve  their  condition. 
In  Ireland,  the  great  wheat  farmer  of  Fingal,  upon  a  similar  extent, 
will  keep  four  times  the  number,  fed  more  expensively,  but  not  so 
judiciously,  always  over-worked  and  always  poor.  Some  of  these 
farmers,  upon  100  acres,  keep  sixteen  horses  in  their  employ,  ami 
there  have  been  instances  of  three-fourths  of  that  number  being  lost 
within  the  year  by  hardship  and  disease.  By  these  means  the  profits 
of  a  farm  are  consumed  without  benefit  to  the  farmer;  and  what 
would  reasonably  support  and  enrich  him,  is  squandered  upon  supers 
numerary  horses.  This  special  circumstance,  not  the  high  rent,  keeps 
the  tenant  in  indigence  and  difficulty.  If  landlords  interfered  to  pro- 
cure for  their  tenantry  a  good  description  of  working  horse,  and  en- 
tourage them  to  use  him  properly,  and  feed  him  well,  it  would  tend 

-  .  27  ' 


■ 


216  QUESTIONS  ON  THE  DAIRY. 

more  to  their  advantage  than  any  abatement  they  can  give.  Upon 
the  farm  of  Vollandre,  the  management  was  in  all  points  to  be  ap- 
proved :  economy  prevailed  in  every  respect,  except  in  the  applica- 
tion of  manure;  the  occupier  was  in  comfort  and  affluence,  and  yet 
his  rent  was  near  40s.  by  the  plantation  acre,  and  his  taxes  triple 
those  of  the  Irish  farmer.  The  difference  is  to  be  found  in  establish- 
ed system,  skilful  management,  and  unceasing  industry. 

Upon  the  farm  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  all  the  crops 
yield  a  great  return — too  much  so  to  be  stated  as  the  average  of  a 
district ;  the  succession^  however,  is  pretty  generally  the  same. 


The  answers  of  Mr.  Van  de  Foes,  President  of  the  Commissioners 
of  Agriculture  in  South  Holland,  to  questions  of  the  Right 
Honorable  Sir  John  Sinclair,  Bart.  Respecting  the  dairy  of 
Mr.   Van  de  Poes. 


Q.  1st.  The  number  of  cows  ? 

A.  Sixty-four  of  all  ages 

Q.  2d.  How  is  the  milk  disposed  of?  in  making  butter?  or. 
cheese  ?  or  feeding  veal  ? 

A.  The  total  produce  of  the  milk  is  sold  wholesale,  and  being 
carried  to  the  Hague  in  copper  vessels,  immediately  after  the  cows 
are  milked,  is  retailed  there  by  the  purchasers. 

Q    3d.  What  is  the  most  profitable  management  ? 

A.  For  those  within  reach  of  great  towns,  the  most  profitable 
mode  is  to  sell  the  milk; — but  for  those  at  a  distance,  the  making  of 
butter  and  cheese  is  more  productive. 

Q.  4th.  What  quantity  of  milk  is  given  by  one  cow,  by  the  day, 
the  week,  the  month,  the  year,  upon  an  average  of  twenty  cows  ? 

A.  Forty  cows  well  fed,  and  well  taken  care  of,  may  give  from 
200  to  250  pints  of  milk*  by  the  day,  during  the  entire  year. 

t  According  to  the  calculation  of  the  Commission  of  Agriculture  of 
the  Province  of  South  Holland,  one  good  cow  produces  78  lbs.  of 
butter,  and  180  lbs.  of  cheese,  in  six  summer  months. 

Q.   5th.  How  are  the  cows  fed  in  summer  and  in  winter  ? 

A.  In  summer  they  feed  in  the  pastures  day  and  night :  in  winter, 
they  are  fed  with  hay,  turnips,  carrots,  grains  from  the  breweries, 
cakes  of  linseed,  bean-meal,  &c.  &c. 

Q.  6th.  What  is  the  best  age  of  a  bull,  and  why? 

A.  A  bull  well  kept,  well  fed  from  a  calf,  and  of  good  blood,  is  fit 
to  serve  cows  generally  at  on.e  and  a  half,  or  two  years  old;  and  this  is 
considered  the  best  age,  as  those  more   advanced  are  heavy  and 

*  This,  on  an  average  of  the  Flemish  pints,  of  different  districts,  would  be 
121  quarts  English  per  day,  which,  from  40  cows,  would  be  but  about  3  quarts 
from  each  cow  This,  even  for  the  year  round,  seems  but  a  triffling  produce. 
The  reporter  is  not  aware  whether  there  is  any  difference  between  the  pint  of 
Flanders  and  that  of  the  Hague 


ON  fHE  FIELD  PEA.       ^  211 

wicked.  The  cow  served  by  an  aged  bull  is  more  likely  to  miss  be- 
ing in  calf;  and  if  impregnated,  is  more  liable  to  suffer  inconvenience 
with  respect  to  the  foetus. 

Q.  7th.  At  what  age  are  bulls  sold  or  dismissed  ? 

A.  At  the  age  of  two,  or  two  and  a  half  years,  they  are  replaced 
by  younger  bulls. 

Q.  8th.  Is  it  an  advantage  that  the  tails  of  cows  should  be  tied  by  a 
cord,  and  raised  high  up?  and  why  ?  *, 

A.  Cleanliness  requires  that  their  tails  should  be  fixed  in  this  man- 
ner, otherwise  they  acquire  dirt,  and  communicate  it  to  the  milker's. 

Q.  9th.  How  is  butter  made?  with  the  entire  milk,  or  only  with 
the  cream? — Is  it  sometimes  saved  with  sugar  and  saltpetre? — Is  it 
washed  ? — How  is  butter  milk  consumed  ? 

A.  In  the  greatest  part  of  Holland,  they  make  butter  of  the 
cream  only:  they  wash  it  very  much,  and  save  it  with  salt.  There 
is  a  great  demand  for  butter  milk — what  is  not  sold,  serves  to  fatten 
pigs,  and  feed  calves. 

Of  the  skimmed-milk,  they  make  cheese  with  a  material  called 
Komyude  Kaas.  In  some  parts  of  Holland,  where  less  butter  is 
made,  they  make  a  rich  cheese  with  entire  milk. 

Here  terminates  the  answers  of  Mr.  Van  de  Poes,  which  relate  to 
the  dairy.  In  the  Island  of  Cadsand,  a  gentleman  very  willing  to 
communicate,  but  not  versed  in  that  kind  of  information,  mentioned 
generally,  his  having  remarked,  that  in  dairying  districts,  the  best 
kept  cow-stables,  were  strictly  attended  to  in  point  of  cleanliness  and 
temperature.  He  spoke  of  having  drank  coffee  with  the  cow-keeper 
in  the  general  stable,  in  winter  without  the  annoyance  of  cold,  of 
dirt,  or  any  offensive  smell. 

In  FJanders,  they  preserve  in  their  cow-stables  the  temperature  of 
the  month  of  May. 

In  Mr.  Roper's  well-cond/icted  establishment,  in  Ireland,  consist- 
ing of  nearly  two  hundred  cows,  the  thermometer  is  kept  at  sixty  de- 
grees, and  it  is  considered,  that  any  variation  from  that  temperature 
tends  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  milk. 

The  Reporter  regrets  extremely,  that  he  had  not  the  opportunity 
of  detailing  from  personal  inspection,  the  practice  of  the  chief  dai* 
ries  in  Holland. 


The  Field-Pea. 


There  is  a  very  general  mistake,  in  this  part  of  the  country,  res- 
pecting the  culture  of  the  Jield-pea.  It  is  supposed  to  require  much 
labor,  and  it  is  conceived  that  they  must  be  sown  in  drills,  and  stuck. 
True  it  is  that,  like  beans,  when  sowed  in  drills,  and  hoed,  they 


'■ 


w 

212  ON  OAT  PASTURE, 

produce  more  abundantly;  and  so  will  any  plant.  But  there  is  no 
more  expense,  or  labor,  in  the  usual  mode  of  cultivation,  than  with 
oats.  They  are  sown  in  broadcast;  and  harrowed  in,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  furrows.  When  ripe  they  are  cut  with  the  scythe,  or  that 
and  the  cradle,  if  they  stand  up  well;  raked  up  when  dry,  and 
stacked,  or  housed.  They  are  threshed  in  the  common  way  ;  and 
cleaned  in  the  common  fan,  nothing  is  equal  to  them  for  rotting  a 
sod ;  and  in  Europe  they  are  often  sown  on  a  ley,  with  one  plough- 
ing; for  the  purpose  of  rotting  it,  as  well  as  for  the  crop.  They 
delisht  m  light  soils  the  most ;  but  will  grow  in  others.  They  are 
ascertain  a  crop,  as  the  grains  in  common  use.  Pease  often  fail,  as 
do  other  crops.  But  when  appearances  are  against  them,  they  may 
be  ploughed  in,  as  green  manure,  to  profitable  account.  When  they 
perfect  their  crop,  or  when  ploughed  in,  they  do  not  fail  to  meliorate 
the  soil.  Beans  are  best  for  heavy  soils;  but  they  do  not  often  suc- 
ceed here.  Pease  are  in  great  demand,  for  ships  provisions,  or  ex- 
portation; when  split,  or  whole.  Chopped  or  ground  for  cattle, 
they  exceed  oats,  either  for  milk,  or  fatting.  Hogs  are  fond  of  them; 
and  they  may  be  given  io  fatting,  or  stock  swine.  But  the  former 
must  be  finished  off  with  Indian  corn ;  which  makes  the  bacon  of 
this  country  superior  to  that  of  Europe^  Horses  are  fed  on  pease  in 
England,  and  other  countries. 

Leguminous  Plants  are  those  whose  seeds  are  enclosed  in  pods. 
Every  species  of  the  pea  and  pulse  kind  are  Legumes.  They  shade 
and  cover;  there  tap,  or  main  roots  strike  deep ;  and  do  not  prey 
upon  or  exhaust  the  vegetable  mould,  as  do  plants  shallow  set,  and 
entirely  fibrous.  Exposing  to  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere  sur- 
faces porous  and  extensive,  they  draw  from  the  air  their  chief  supplies. 
They  probably  give  to  the  earth,  a  balance  beyond  their  receipts  from 
it  j  which,  by  their  shade  and  cover,  they  enable  it  to  retain. 

'  R.  PETEPv^ 


'         #  JEM* '  *•  S%t&® 

On  Oat  Pasture,  and  Improvement  of  Soils. 

t 

It  is  generally  acknowledged,  that  the  best  land  may  be  reduced 
to  sterility,  from  an  injudicious  rotation  of  crops  .It  remains  in  a  great 
measure  to  be  proved,  whether  a  farm,  which  from  bad  management 
had  been  rendered  barren,  can  be  restored  to  its  pristine  fertility,  by 
a  treatment,  not  beyond  the  reach  of  every  farmer,  (nor  without  the 
farm )  who  possesses  the  land,  free  from  incumbrances,  which  are 
nearly  equal  to  the  supposed  value  of  his  worn  out  farm. 

When  an  inquirer  examines  the  publications  of  those  who  have 
given  the  results  of  their  experiments,  it  appears  not  only  practica- 
ble, but  easy:  frequently  however,  some  circumstance  is  not  men- 


AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS.  218 

lioned  in  the  communication,  or  something  not  attended  to  by  the 
reader,  who  intends  to  make  the  same  successful  experiments,  but 
rails,  from  the  causes  stated. 

The; Rockland  farm,  exhibited  a  subject  for  experiment,  as  it  had 
not  only  been  reduced  by  cropping,  but  generally,  became  a  common 
for  every  animal,  to  take  what  remained  of  the  scanty  natural,  but 
coarse  herbage;  having  read  in  various  books  the  result  of  sowing 
plaister  and  clover,  it  was  presumed,  that  sowing  plaister  and  clover, 
would  be  the  extent  of  the  expenses  required  to  fertilize  the  fields, 
in  a  few  years  ; — a  few  experiments,  proved  that  the  plaister  and 
clover  seed  were  both  lost,  as  no  one  could  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
point  out  what  field,  or  upon  what  part  of  the  field  they  had  been 
deposited,  unless  where  the  briars  and  bushes  had  been  eradicated. 

It  should  however  have  been  mentioned,  that  the  soil  was  general- 
ly a  cold  or  heavy  clay,  some  blue,  white,  light  brown  and  a  tew 
spots  of  red  clay,  loaded  with  hard,blue  stone  and  rocks,  chiefly 
quartz,  mixed  with  iron  and  copper.  Some  of  the  experiments 
were  made  with  plaister,  others  were  made  by  top-dressing  with 
lime,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five,  to  thirty  bushels  per  acre:  the  lime 
was  brought  20  or  25  miles  from  the  kiln,  and  laid  on  the  field  at  25 
cents  per  bushel :  it  was  formed  into  a  bed  of  about  half  a  foot  thick 
and  covered  with  earth,  ploughed  and  thrown  over  it,  before  it  was 
slacked,  that  all  the  phosphoric  principle  disengaged  by  the  water, 
might  be  united  with  the  earth  which  it  covered  ;  a  heavy  harrow  was 
afterwards  passed  over  it,  so  soon  as  the  shell  was  reduced  to  powder ; 
the  bed  of  lime  and  earth,  was  then  frequently  turned  by  the  plough 
and  harrow,  until  the  whole  assumed  the  appearance,  and  smell, 
of  soapers  ashes,  containing  about  ten  parts  of  common  soil,  to  one 
of  lime.  It  was  then  carted,  and  spread  regularly  over  the  field, 
and  in  every  instance  it  gave  a  return  of  clover,  equal  to  ten  load  of 
stable  manure  to  the  acre.  The  idea  of  mixing  the  lime  and  earth, 
was  suggested  from  spreading  the  refuse  mortar  of  lime  and  sand 
gathered  from  about  buildings  and  laid  upon  the  field,  the  efTect  of 
which  I  observed  was  more  immediate  than  any  equal  quantity  of 
lime:  though  mixtures  of  lime  and  earth,  were  equally  so, — in  both 
cases,  the  lime  was  completely  pulverized,  and  the  sand  and  earth, 
broke  up  the  communication  of  lime  with  lime,  and  the  succeeding 
rains  carried  the  fertilizing  principle  of  the  lime,  as  from  a  seive, 
into  the  soil  where  it  was  spread, — it  completely  divided  the  soil, 
rendering  that  open  and  warm,  which  before  was  compact,  and  too 
cold  for  the  roots  of  the  grain  to  live  in. 

The  whole  soil  which  before  felt  dead  under  foot,  became  so  elas- 
tic that  persons  of  observation  by  walking  over  the  field  in  the  night, 
distinctly  told  how  far  the  lime  and  earth  compost  extended.  The 
colour  of  the  soil  was  likewise  changed  into  that  of  chocolate. 

These  effects  presented  several  ideas,  which  had  not  occurred  to 
me  before:  viz.  That  any  thing  which  would  separate  the  particles 
of  the  soil,  and  admit  the  air,  would  render  these  cold  and  heavy 
clays,  warm  and  fertile; — that  free  intercourse  of  air,  would  carry  off 
the  acid ;  to  meet  this,  ploughing  in  the  fall  was  adopted,  and  found 
successful  j  one  half  of  a  field  six  years  ago  was  ploughed  in  the  win- 


214  ON  OAT  PASTURE 


ter,  the  other  half  ploughed  in  the  spring,  that  part  which  was  plough* 
ed  in  the  spring,  has  never  brought  grain,  or  grass  equal  to  the  other. 
Jt  should  have  been  observed,  that  the  field  had  not  been  ploughed 
for  upwards  of  20  years,  and  of  course  a  great  body  of  rubbish  and 
roots  were  ploughed  in,  after  the  briar-hook,  and  grubbing-hoe  had 
smoothed  the  surface.  Spreading  of  manure  in  the  autumn,  from  the 
compost  bed  has  also  been  introduced  with  universal  success,  b  >th 
upon  grain  and  grass  fields,  the  lye  or  salts,  of  the  manure,  being  car- 
ried into  the  soil  by  the  rains  upon  the  breaking  up  of  the  frosts, 
which  have  in  some  measure  prepared  the  soil  to  receive  it.  High  a- 
gricultural  authorities,  even  bottomed  on  accurate  observation,  are 
opposed  to  the  practice  of  spreading  out  manure  in  autumn;  amongst 
these  we  find  the  justly  celebrated  Lord  Kaims,  in  his  gentleman  far- 
mer, a  work  upon  first  principles,  and  deservedly  of  the  highest  au- 
thority. A  departure  from  his  judgment  is  only  to  be  allowed,  where 
facts  would  censure  silence;  nor  should  his  name  have  been  mentioned, 
unless  to  avoid  the  charge  of  writing  without  attending  to  what  has 
been  said  on  that  subject:  it  is  no  conclusive  objection  that "  the 
strength  of  the  manures,  will  be  carried  off  by  winter  rains,  or  ex- 
hausted by  the  frost :"  are  not  the  warm  showers  more  so  and  are  not 
the  exhalations  more  copious  in  a  warm  than  in  a  cold  temperature  ; 
is  the  descending  of  the  sap  in  trees  no  monitor,  as  to  the  season  for 
spreading  out  manures,  and  about  the  operations  of  nature,  for  renew- 
ing, and  invigorating,  the  process  of  vegetation. 

Briar-bushes,  and  all  vegetable  substances  have  been  covered  up 
with  earth,  rotted  and  used  with  the  same  success,  as  stable  manure, 
and  so  far,  and  so  long,  as  they  separate  parts  of  the  soil  and  admit 
the  air,  they  fertilize  and  change  the  colour  of  the  mould.  These 
experiments  tested  by  frequent  repetition,  have  laid  a  foundation  for 
experiments  less  expensive,  and  equally  fertilizing,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  grass  and  grain.  Ploughing  and  sowing,  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  pasture,  and  accumulation  of  vegetable  soil  have  been 
adopted:  for  this  purpose  wheat,  rye,  Indian  corn,  (maize,)  buck- 
wheat and  oats  have  been  sown  upon  fields  ploughed,  which  were 
incapable  of  producing  any  crop;  none  of  those  grains,  have  pro- 
duced pasture  and  vegetable  soil  equally  valuable,  to  that  from  the 
oats:  where  the  others  have  failed,  its  roots  have  pierced,  disarmed 
and  vanquished 'the  inhospitable  soil  and  rendered  it  fertile;  the' 
winter  ploughing  is  continued,  and  the  oats  are  thrown  in,  as  early 
as  the  season  will  allow, some  times  even  in  February,  either  upon  what 
has  been  ploughed  in  autumn,  or  in  the  fields  which  were  in  corn  the 
preceeding  fall.  In  general  they  afford  early  pasture,  and  when 
they  are  reploughed  in  July  and  August,  and  sown  again  with  oats, 
they  furnish  excellent  pasture  from  early  in  September,  until  late  in 
December,  during  that  season  when  all  other  pasture  is  generally 
dried  up.  The  first  sowing  of  oats  only  gives  about  two  months  pas- 
ture, but  the  roots  and  remaining  herbage  affords  a  manure  for  the 
second  sowing,  and  this  always  yeilds  four  months  valuable  pasture, 
which  no  other  course  known  to  me  will  afford.  In  September, 
October,  November  and  December,  considerable  attention,  is  re- 
quired, to  preserve  the  young  clover,  which  the  field  will  be  able  to 


■> 

AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS.  215 

saisein  the  second  year  of  the  oat  pasture:  if  sown  with  the  oats  in 
spring,  the  cattle  should  never  be  put  in  while  the  ground  is  too 
moist,  as  they  would  destroy  and  tread  it  into  soil:  and  sometimes 
dry  seasons  are  also  highly  injurious  to  the  clover.  When  the  clover 
is  sown  with  the  second  sowing  of  oats,  the  same  care  is  required  to 
prevent  its  being  trodden  in  by  the  live  stock,  for  this  purpose  it  is 
always  necessary  to  have  a  spare  field  of  old  pasture,  which  they  will 
feed  upon  in  wet  weather,  and  which  they  would  not  relish  in  dry 
weather.  To  guard  against  a  dry  season  it  is  most  proper  never  to 
pasture  the  oats,  where  the  clover  is  sown,  so  much,  as  to  prevent  the 
herbage  of  the  oats,  from  giving  shade  to  the  clover.  So  soon  as  a 
field  will  produce  clover  luxuriantly,  there  is  no  farmer  at  a  loss  how 
to  make  his  field  as  rich  as  he  pleases  and  having  got  them  into  good 
heart,  it  will  be  his  interest  to  put  them  in  such  rotation,  as  shall  in- 
crease the  vegetable  soil  and  consequent  fertilility  of  his  lands. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  mention,  what  will  make  its  way 
to  the  understanding  of  every  farmer,  viz.  The  many  advantages 
gained  from  treating  his  barren  field  this  way. 

1st.  Early  and  late  sweet  pasture  from  such  fields,  which  other- 
wise produced  a  scanty  coarse  herbage  unpalatable  to  every  animal. 

2d.  Immediate  reward  for  his  labor ;  the  stock  are  supported  by  it 
within  two  months  from  the  time  seed  is  sown :  the  two  returns  give 
six  months  green  food  ;  he  is  not  however  to  depend  upon  it  for  all 
his  summer  pasture. 

3d.  Perhaps  it  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  to  root  out  gar- 
lick,  because  what  have  escaped  the  plough  in  the  spring,  are  eaten 
down  with  the  pasture  from  the  first  sowing  of  oats,  and  prevented 
from  going  into  seed ;  the  ploughing  in  July  and  August  expose  so- 
many  of  its  bulbs  to  the  sun  that  few  shoots  are  to  be  found  in  oats 
sown  for  fall  pasture. 

4th.  It  is  an  easy  and  profitable  way  of  clearing  grain-fields  from 
every  species  of  injurious'weeds  ;  as  it  will  convert  them  into  vege- 
table soil,  and  enable  the  farmer  to  raise  whatever  grain  or  grass  he 
shalljudge  most  suitable  to  the  soil. 

5th.  It  will  save  the  expense  of  a  fruitless  summer  fallow,  and 
the  green  herbage  will  aid  the  dairy. 

6th.  It  enriches  the  farm  from  within  itself,  and  no  expense  is  re- 
quired beyond  the  reach  of  any  farmer :  by  rising  one  hour  earlier, 
and  working  one  hour  later  than  usual,  for  two  weeks,  he  may 
plough  and  sow  two  acres,  as  an  experiment.  The  pasture  will 
recompence  his  labor,  while  his  soil  is  greatly  improved;  it  is  equal- 
ly evident,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  acquired,- partly  from  the 
roots  of  the  oats,  opening  the  soil  and  introducing  the  air  and 
warmth  of  the  sun,  and  partly  from  accession  of  vegetable  soil, 
produced  from  the  decomposed  roots  of  such  pasturage;  but  even 
before  the  roots  are  converted  into  soil,  they  produce  the  most  bene- 
ficial effects.  Those  from  the  spring  sowing,  retain  the  moisture, 
and  supply  the  summer  sowing  with  it.  The  roots  from  the  fall  pas- 
turage, being  full  of  sap,  introduce  winter  frosts  every  where,  into 
the  soil,  which  swelling  with  the  congealation,  separates  the  parti- 
cles j  for  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  roots  while  the  stem  is  eaten  down 


2  lb' 

»by  the  stalk,  do  not  become  hard  but  are  more  numerous,  than  when 
th?  plant  is  matured  into  grain.  It  is  however  necessary  to  sow  at 
least  double  the  quantity  of  seed,  to  that  required  for  crops  of  grain, 
the  pasture  being  so  much  thicker,  and  the  increase  of  vegetable  soil 
from  the  decayed  roots  so  much  the  greater. 

ft  is  not  to  be  expected,  that  one  or  two  repetitions  of  the  series  of 
oat  pasture,  will  make  the  soil  equally  rich  as  a  common  dressing  of 
stable  manure,  which  from  a  farm  of  100  acres,  will  not  in  general 
extend  over  more  than  10  or  15  acres ;  this  gives  to  one  acre  nearly 
the  vegetable  soil  produced  from  7  or  10  acres. — It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, that  the  object  proposed  was  to  render  worn  out,  or  barren 
fields  productive;  and  in  no  case  have  I  found  a  field,  which  was  not 
after  two  years  oat  pasture,  capable  of  producing  clover,  and  receiv- 
ing the  gypsum  with  evident  advantage.  So  soon  as  a  field  produces 
.  clover,  no  one  is  at  a  loss,  how  to  produce  advantageous  crops  after- 
wards It  is  in  every  ones  power,  to  estimate  what  the  ploughing  and 
seeding  per  acre  of  oat  will  cost,  and  according  to  circumstances,  so 
%ill  the  expenses  be,  but  in  general  where  the  expenses  are  high,  the 
value  oi'  the  pasture  is  equally  so,  and  if  even  granted  that  the  cost  of 
ploughing,  and  seeding,  shall  be  double  in  value  to  the  pasture  pro- 
duced, let  the  comparative  value  of  the  field  be  estimated,  before  the 
course  was  begun,  a  waste,  or  worn  out  field,  and  what  it  is  now, 
when  the  course  is  completed  and  laid  down  in  clover,  timothy  or  or-> 
chard  grass. 

It  will  be  of  the  first  importance  to  have  at  least  two  fields,  other- 
wise if  the  cattle  are  constantly  upon  the  same  field  it  will  not  be 
found  so  productive,  and  in  wet  weather,  they  should  be  turned  into 
some  field  where  the  herbage  was  too  hard  in  dry  weather.  It  will 
be  eaten  greedily  by  the  cattle  after  they  have  been  satiated  with  the 
soit  blades  of  the  oats;  under  this  management,  beeves  have  been 
fatted  for  family  use  and  taken  off  in  December,  without  any  grain. 
It  is  observed  that  the  oats  scour  at  first,  but  the  free  use  of  salt, 
readily  corrects  the  complaint,  and  in  no  pasture  do  they  rise  faster 
in  flesh;  and  the  juces  of  their  meat  uncommonly  geateful. 

The  fields  which  have  been  in  corn  the  preceeding  year,  have  al- 
so been  sown  in  the  spring;  without  being  reploughed,  and  have 
clone  equally  well,  except  upon  heavy  clays,  when  the  spring  has 
commenced  with  heavy  rains,  which  have  rendered  the  soil  too  com- 
pact to  be  opened,  even  with  a  heavy  brake  harrow,  drawn  by  four 
horses.  The  fields  from  the  oat  pasture  the  foregoing  autumn,  have 
.  also  been  sown,  without  reploughing,  when  the  spring  has  set  in 
without  much  rain,  after  severe  frost;  not  only  the  oat  pasture,  but 
also  the  clover  sown  therewith,  have  answered  well. 

Oats  have  also  been  sown  amongst  the  hills,  and  drills  of  corn,  af- 
ter it  has  received  the  last  dressing.  It  has  succeeded,  without  any 
visible  injury  to  the. corn,  provided,  care  has  been  taken  not  to  injure 
the  roots,  by  the  plough  or  harrow  at  the  time  the  oats  were  sown. 

It  has  been  inquired,  are  not  all  crops  of  oats  exhausting,  if  so, 
how  can  two  sowings  of  oats  in  the  same  year  render  the  soil  fertile  ? 
it  is  granted,  if  oats  shall  be  matured  into  seed  they  will  certainly 
exhaust,  but  if  cut  off,  while  in  the  blade,  they,  and  all  culmiferous 


AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS.  217 

plants,  will  fertilize.  The  experiment  was  made  with  Indian  corn, 
sown  broad-cast,  cut  twice  and  carried  to  the  stable,  and  a  crop  of 
turnips  taken  off  the  ground  the  same  season  :  the  manure  was  laid 
on  before  the  corn  was  sown,  but  none  was  given  when  the  turnip 
seed  was  put  in. 

Another  way  in  which  oats  fertilize,  appears  to  be  from  increase  of 
vegetable  soil ;  this  is  within  the  view  of  every  observer;  the  remains 
.  of  (he  pasture  ploughed  in,  particularly  in  July  and  August  is  speedi- 
ly decomposed,  its  tenderness  and  moisture  aiding  the  dissolution. 
But  dry  stubble  and  husky  roots  are  difficultly  decomposed,  nor  do 
they  produce  so  much  carbonic  or  coally  matter  in  the  soil,  which 
chemists  say  decomposes  the  water,  rind  produce  the  air  required  to 
promote  vegetation  As  the  vegetable  is  produced  from  air  and  wa- 
ter, and  not  from  earth,  which  seems  to  be  no  more  than  the  labora- 
tory where  the  process  of  vegetation  commences,  and  finally  serve 
asu  matrix  to  hold  one  part  of  the  plant,  while  the  other  parts  are 
raised  aloft,  in  quest  of  superior  aid,  to  complete  the  inscrutable 
operations  of  the  vegetable  fabric. 

It  has  also  been  inquired,  will  this  process  of  oat  pasture  fertilize 
every  where?  It  is  answered,  that  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  the 
same,  the  effects  will  be  the  same  also.  A  description  has  been 
given  of  the  soils,  where  the  experiments  were  made,  and  are  still 
going  on.  If  experiments  of  the  same  nature  shall  be  made  upon 
a  different  soil  and  climate,  the  result  will  be  different,  and  more  or  , 
ie$s  favorable,  according  to  circumstances,  and  for  which  the  prac- 
tice now  mentioned,  cannot  in  justice  be  rendered  accountable.  If 
my  shoe  fit  my  foot,  I  am  warranted  to  say,  it  will  suit  a  foot  uf  the 
same  size  and  shape  every  where;  let  no  one  conclude,  that  it  will 
fit  a  foot  of  larger  or  less  size  or  different  form,  but  I  must  confess 
that  passing  over  things  equally  obvious,  I  have  run  into  numerous 
and  expensive  errors. 

But  when  it  is  inquired  upon  what  evidence  it  is  to  be  received— 
the  reply  is  at  hand,  living  evidences,  are  at  command  of  every  one 
who  chooses  to  make  the  trial,  let  him  however,  be  on  his  guard, 
against  suffering  himself  to  take  a  crop  in  place  of  the  spring  pasture 
oats. 

If  it  shall  still  be  inquired,  how  does  the  oat  pasture  fertilize?  It 
may  be  also  observed  that  the  constant  verdure  and  green  herbage 
prevent  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  parching  the  soil  and  depriving  it  of 
its  moisture  and  air,  both  of  which  are  highly  necessary  to  vegeta- 
tion. The  double  portion  of  juicy  vegetable  matter  arising  from  the 
two  crops  of  pasture  in  the  same  summer,  being  every  where  united 
with  the  common  soil  partly  me<  hanically  and  partly  chemically, 
renders  the  soil  capable  of  retaining, sufficient  moisture  and  elastic 
air,  to  make  it  open  and  warm,  and  by  which  the  soil  does  not  be- 
come thicker  by  going  downward,  but  actually  expands,  or  rises,  so 
as  to  give  a  furrow,  considerably  deeper,  than  formerly,  over  im- 
moveable rocks.  Some  years  ago,  a  field  in  view  of  the  farm-house, 
.marked  the  broad  rocks,  during  the  course  of  every  crop ;  they  are 
now  covered  with  so  much  soil,  that  they  are  seldom  observed. 
The  two  plouchings  also  contribute  to  the  increase  of  the  air  in  the 
28 


21 1  ON  OAT  PASTURE,  &C. 

soil,  without  which  no  soil  can  be  fruitful,  there  being  no  vegetation 
in  vacuo.  Tull's  horse-hoeing  husbandry,  was  introduced  under  the 
idea,  that  the  pabulum  of  plants  was  pulverized  earth  ;  the  fact  dai- 
ly before  us  is,  that  pulverized  earth,  retains  the  moisture  and  air, 
as  the  handmaids  of  vegetation,  some  experiments  have  lately  been 
made,  the  results  of  which  favor  these  remarks,  viz.  "  that  soils 
afforded  quantities  of  air  by  distillation,  somewhat  corresponding  to 
the  ratios  of  their  values." 

Inclosed  I  have  sent  soils  in  the  state  they  were  found  before  the 
Courses  mentioned  were  introduced. 

No.  1 .  A  sample  of  the  unimproved  soil  about  three  inches  deep. 

No.  2.  A  sample  of  the  same  soil  four  inches  deep,  improved  by 
the  lime  compost  two  years. 

No.  3  A  sample  two  inches  deep,  from  the  field  in  its  exhausted 
state. 

No.  4.  A  sample  three  inches  deep  from  the  same  field,  which 
was  once  sown  in  pasture  oats,  and  has  been  one  year  in  grass,  sown 
after  the  oats,  which  did  not  take  well,  partly  owing  to  the  late  sea- 
son when  it  was  sown;  and  partly  owing  to  the  seed  having  been  in- 
jured, and  the  soil  still  cold.         *' 

No.  5.  A  sample  two  inches,  from  an  exhausted  field. 

No.  6.  A  sample  four  inches,  from  the  same  field  after  pasture 
Oats,  which  was  followed  by  wheat,  a  poor  crop,  and  succeeded  by 
oats  a  middling  crop,  with  clover  which  yeilded  a  considerable 
Swarth  last  season ;  when  the  clover  is  ploughed  in  it  will  be  follojv- 
ed  by  pasture  oats.* 

*  The  samples  of  soils  sent  by  Mr.  Young,  exhibited  the  most  marked  differ- 
ence The  progress  from  absolute  sterility,  to  rich  mould,  might  be  traced 
by  the  appearance  of  colour  in  the  several  parcels.  I,  with  great  pleasure^ 
bear  testimony  on  the  subject  of  Mr.  Young's  improvements.  In  the  years 
1806  and  1808,  I  saw  cattle  feeding  in  good  pasture  and  good  crops  of  grain, 
and  grass  growing  in  fields,  which  in  1804,  I  thought  totally  irreclaimable 
from  briars,  garlick  roots,  and  original  poverty  of  soil.  Where  manure  is  at 
hand,  and  capital  in  the  possession  of  the  cultivator  to  purchase  it,  any  soil 
may  be  rendered  fertile;  but  Mr.  Young  affords  the  best  example  of  good 
farming,  viz.  enriching  a  naturally  poor  soil,  and  restoring  fertility  to  exhaust- 
ed land,  by  returning  thereto  its  own  produce  raised  with  the  least  possible 
expense. 

A 


j  |  1 1  ft|| 


4 


ON  MANURE? 


[>rom  cooper's  domestic  ehcyclopebia.^ 


,219 


■ 

On  Manure. 


JjJ.  \NURE,  denotes  any  substance  employed  for  improving  land, 
whether  by  remedying  its  natural  poverty,  or  by  correcting  its  too 
great  stiffness,  looseness,  or  other  qualities  unfavourable  to  vegeta- 
tion. 

[The  following  general  observations  on  manure,  may  furnish  more 
accurate  ideas  than  commonly  prevail  on  the  subject. 

Writers  on  agriculture,  ignorant  for  the  most  part  of  the  physiolo- 
gy of  animals,  as  well  as  vegetables ;  have  usually  considered  and 
treated  of  plants,  as  inanimate  beings;  they  are  not  so.  Every 
plant  is  the  production  of  an  organized  seed,  endued  with  the  pro- 
perty of* vegetable  life,  and  of  being  acted  upon  by  appropriate  sti- 
muli. This  vegetable  life  is  originally  excited  and  subsequently  con-* 
tinued  by  the  application  of  what  may  be  called  natural  stimuli, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  in  animals.  Thus  the  pollen  of  the 
pointal  received  by  the  chive,  and  propagated  to  the  seed  vessel,  im- 
pregnates the  seed,  and  excites  the  action  of  the  living  fibre,  which 
afterward  proceeds  according  to  the  laws  of  organization  peculiar  to 
each  plant.  This  action  is  continually  renewed  by  the  application 
of  vegetable  food,  by  means  of  which  the  germ  is  dilated  till  the 
plant  arrives  at  its  full  growth.  All  this  is  perfectly  analogous  to  the 
impregnation  of  the  animal  germ  in  the  ovarium  and  its  subsequent 
growth  to  full  size  and  age. 

In  animals  the  muscular  fibres  have  the  property  of  contracting  on 
being  irritated,  (irritability  as  it  is  called,)  so  have  vegetable  fibres; 
the  sensative  plant,  the  hedasyrum,  the  dionea  muscipula  of  Caro- 
lina ;  the  phenomena  of  plants  growing  in  a  dark  place  and  turning 
to  the  light,  are  proofs  of  this,  if  not  of  voluntarity.  The  separated 
twigs  of  hedasyrum  are  irritable  like  a  separated  muscle.  Mr.  How- 
ard has  lately  discovered  the  same  property  in  the  pollen  on  the , 
application  of  alcohol.     (Transactions  Linn.  Society,  London.) 

Animals  have  feeling,  perception,  or  sensibility,  and  the  power  of 
voluntary  motion.  So  (as  some  think)  have  plants.  The  facts  ad- 
duced by  Percival,  Smith  and  Darwin,  and  the  whole  class  of  phen- 
omena relating  to  their  search  of  food  and  propagation  of  their 


220  ON  MANURE^ 

species,  seems  to  render  this  probable.     To  which  may  be  added  the 
habits  and  customs  of  the  parasite  plants. 

Animals,  though  perfect  in  all  their  parts,  may  be  stinted  in  their 
growfh,  by  too  small  a  quantity  of  food  and  by  other  means  ;  and  this 
dimunition  will  affect  the  size  of  their  offspring.  The  case  is  precise- 
ly the  same  with  plants.  By  a  plenty  of  food,  and  favourable  situa- 
tions, animals  may  be  increased  in  size.  So  may  vegetables.  By 
breading  from  selected  couples  of  a  large  size,  the  size  of  the  animal 
offspring  is  increased.  Hereon  was  founded  the  successful  practice 
of  the  greatest  cattle  breeder  in  England  Mr.  Bakewell,  of  Dishly  ; 
and  the  same  set  of  experiments  has  been  repeated  with  equal  success 
on  plants  by  Mr  Cooper,  of  Ne  ^'-Jersey.  Mr.  Bakewell  increased 
the  flesh  on  particular  bones  of  his  cattle,  and  propagated  this  propen- 
sity. Mr.  Cooper  has  in  like  manner,  propagated  not  merely  in- 
crease  of  size,  but  increase  of  size  in  particular  parts  of  the  plant t 
and  propensities  to  the  earlier  vegetation. 

In  animals,  appetite  may  be  provoked  and  digestion  assisted  by 
the  artificial  stimuli  of  what  physicians  call  condiments,  salt,  pepper, 
wines,  acids,  bitters,  &c.  Such  also  is  the  property  of  vegetables. 
Their  hands,  mouths,  and  stomachs,  are  in  the  soil ;  and  by  the 
application  of  artificial  stimuli,  such  as  lime,  common  salt,  alkalies,, 
plaister  of  Paris,  &c.  their  roots  may  be  excited  to  want,  to  seek, 
to  take  in,  and  to  digest  more  nutriment  than  they  would  otherwise 
take  in. 

Animals  may  be  surfeited  with  too  much  nourishment.  So  plants 
will  die,  if  set  in  a  mere  dung  heap.  Animals  may  be  poisoned. 
So  may  plants.  Every  metalic  combination,  for  instance,  except 
oxygenated  and  carbonated  iron,*  the  calx  of  manganese  (and  lead,!) 
and  in  small  quantities,  being  poisons  to  the  vegetable. 

By  the  artificial  stimuli  of  condiments,  animals  may  be  excited  too 
much,  and  indirect  debility  will  ensue.  So  is  it  with  plants.  In  like 
manner  excess  of  these  artificial  stimuli  will  take  away  their  benefici- 
al effects,  as  half  a  pint  of  wine  may  assist,  when  a  bottle  will  injure 
digestion.  Thus  from  the  experiments  of  Sir  John  Pringle,  and  Dr. 
Watson  (Bishop  of  Landaff,)  it  appears  that  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
is  a  septic  to  the  animal  fibre,  and  a  manure  to  vegetables ;  while  a 
large  quantity  is  the  domestic  antiseptic  of  cookery,  and  destroys  ve- 
getation altogether.  So  in  the  experiments  of  Judge  Peters,  two  bush- 
els of  gypsum  will  produce  a  luxuriant  crop,  and  six  or  eight  will  pre- 
vent it. 

In  animals,  when  parts  of  muscular  or  other  fibres  are  weak,  dis- 
eased, and  dying,  artificial  stimuli  can  be  applied  to  excite  an  action 
in  the  living  and  healthy  parts,  by  which  the  dead  are  separated  and 
sloughed  off.  So  in  plants,  the  artificial  stimulus  of  those  substances, 
which  are  not  manures  in  the  sense  of  affording  nourishment  to  the 

*  This  combination  was  found  highly  useful  as  a  manure  by  Mr.  Joseph 
Whitten  of  Kent,  Lichfield  county,  Connecticut,  for  all  garden  vegetables.  Ft 
answered  better  for  Indian-corn,  than  either  ashes  or  gypsum.  See  Med. 
Rep.  vol.  II.  page  440.— Dr.   Mease 

t  Sir  J.  Banks  was  unable  to  make  arenaria  verna  grow  in  his  garden,  until 
he  procured  the  dross  of  lead,  and  surrounded  the  plant  with  it.  See  Ander- 
son's Recreations,  vol-  I. — Dr.  Mease. 


..<*,.  Off  MANURE.  221 

plants,  but  only  exciting  a  stronger  and  more  healthy  action  in  the 
living  fibre ;  will  kill  the  weak  and  diseased  roots,  while  they  invigo- 
rate the  more  healthy.  This  is  the  mode  of  action  (in  part)  of  lime, 
gypsum,  salt,  &c.  usually  classed  among  manures,  but  which  do  not 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  plant  itself. 

Animals  are  resolvable  into  lime,  gases  and  phosphoric  acid. 
There  is  no  peculiar  animal  earth.  The  phenomena  of  marine  ani- 
mals, the  experiments  of  Vauquelin  on  the  production  of  lime  in 
the  hen,  and  some  other  facts,  make  it  probable  that  the  lime  of  the 
bones,  as  well  as  their  phosphoric  acid,  is  the  product  of  animaliza- 
tion.  Vegetables  are  resolvable  into  gases  and  fixed  alkali  by  fire; 
by  putrefaction  their  alkali  is  decomposed,  and  escapes  in  the  form  of 
volatile  alkali,  for  no  fixed  alkali  is  found  on  the  incineration  of 
vegetables  which  have  undergone  completely  the  putrefaction  process. 
Both  vegetables  and  animals  contain  in  their  fluids,  accidentally, 
unessential  quantities  of  iron,  manganese,  and  neutral  salts,  Thus 
the  blood  contains  iron,  the  serum  and  urine,  microcosmic  and  phos- 
phoric salts  with  the  bases  of  lime,  soda  and  volatile  alkali.  So  m 
plants,  nitre  is  found  in  borage,  in  nettles,  '&c.  and  ozalites  in  some. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  component  parts  of  vegetables  are  very 
nearly  the  same;  indeed  the  gases  into  which  they  are  each  resolva- 
ble form  nineteen-twentieths  of  their  weight  We  are  aware  of  the 
experiments  and  observations,  as  yet  inconclusive,  of  Vauquelin, 
Girtanner,  Humboldt,  and  Lampadius,  on  the  decomposition  of  al- 
kalies and  earths  by  means  of  oxygen ;  and  although  they  are  not  yet 
satis  factor}'',  we  may  fairly  assert  the  probability  of  the  conversion 
of  lime  into  alkali,  and  that  the  difference  of  organization  alone, 
makes  that  to  be  lime  in  an  animal  which  is  alkali  in  a  vegetable. 

Again ;  Animal  fibres  are  made  from  plants.  So  true  is  the  scrip- 
ture exclamation,  that  all  flesh  is  grass  !  An  ox  and  a  sheep  are  made 
up  of  vegetables,  and  so  are  we  who  devour  them.  Nothing  is  nou- 
rishment to  an  animal,  but  what  was  originally  a  vegetable.  In  like 
manner,  nothing  is  nourishment  to  a  vegetable,  but  what  enters  into 
the  permament  composition  of  a  vegetable.  We  find  that  large 
plants  grow  in  pure  sand,  (Van  Helmont,)  in  sand  and  clay,  in 
common  clay,  in  lime-stone,  lime-stone  and  sand,  lime-stone  and 
clay,  and  in  all  the  combinations  of  these  common  earths:  but  we 
do  not  find  that  these  earths,  or  any  one  of  them,  are  permament 
and  essential  parts  of  the  composition  of  a  plant,  any  more  than  of 
an  animal.  In  a  human  body  of  2001b.  weight,  may  be  found 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  of  an  ounce  of  common  salt,  and  perhaps 
the  same  proportion  of  gypsum  may  be  founcl  in  clover  ;  but  these 
are  accidental  parts  of  composition.  Hence  manures  of  nourish- 
ment are  distinguished  from  manures  of  stimulus,  and  from  mechanic- 
al manures;  and  we  are  taught,  that  every  vegetable  and  animal 
substance,  when  decomposed,  furnishes  pabulum  to  vegetable,  and 
that  every  such  substance  so  decomposed  is  a  manure  of  nourishment, 
and  that  nothing  else  is,  or  can  be.  It  may  be  taken  for  an  axiom, 
that  from  man  to  a  cabbage  or  a  lichen,  nothing  can  be  converted 
into  a  nourishment  for  the  living  fibre,  but  what  has  been  a  perma- 
nently component  part  of  living  fibre  before. 


222  ©N  MANURE,  v. 

There  are  other  properties  of  vegetables  similar  (rather  than  anaj» 
ogous  to  th  >se  of  animals,  which  the  necessary  brevity  of  this  com= 
pilation  will  not  admit.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  plants, 
like  animals,  may  be  transplanted  from  one  climate  and  soil  to  an- 
other, provided  the  difference  be  not  very  great,  and  care  be  taken  to 
accustom  them  gradually  to  the  change.  Indeed,  vegetables  like  ani- 
mals, will  accustom  themselves  to  the  change  in  a  generation  or  two? 
provided  the  difference  be  not  above  8  or  10  degrees  of  latitude,  or 
of  mean  temperature.     The  range  is  not  yet  ascertained. 

On  the  preceeding  properties  of  vegetables  and  their  analogies  to 
animals,  may  all  the  agricultural  doctrine  of  manures  be  well  found- 
ed. These  analogies  have  been  remarked  by  others,  but  their  appli- 
cativm  in  this  respect  has  not  been  heretofore  sufficiently  observed. 

Animals  (lifer  from  vegetables  in  having  a  more  extended  sphere 
of  locomotion.  The  animal  (except  in  cases  nearly  zoophytical,) 
can  move  the  whole  of  his  body  from  one  place  to  another;  a  plant 
can  only  move  its  root,  fibres,  and  its  branches.  The  convolvuli, 
and  other  parasite  plants,  are  in  some  degree  an  exception,  but  the 
general  rule  is,  that  the  "immoveable  centre  of  a  plant's  situation  is 
the  place  where  the  germ  falls,  or  the  seed  or  plant  is  set  with  intent 
that  it  should  remain.  Hence  the  use  of  that  kind  of  manuring 
which  consists  in  the  admixture  of  soils  of  various  depths  and  adhe- 
sion, fop  the  mechanical  purpose  of  keeping  the  plant  steady. 
II.  Of  climate  and  soil. 

No  experiments  have  been  made  to  ascertain  with  precision  the 
bounds  of  laiitude  or  temperature  which  prohibit  the  naturalization 
of  exotic  plants.  In  t  ranee,  Young  has  marked  the  limes  of  the 
maize  and  the  vine  culture.  In  this  country  maize  grows  tolerably 
well  from  latitude  42,  and  beyond  it  to  Georgia.  Wheat  is  not  so 
good  and  productive  south  of  Virginia,  as  in  the  middle  states. 
The  latitudes  of  cotton  and  rice  are  not  yet  exactly  ascertained. 
Coffee  has  not  yet  had  a  fair  trial  in  our  southern  states,  nor  the  su- 
gar cane.  Much  indeed  yet  remains  to  be  done  in  this  respect,  and 
much  is  doing  by  the  British  government  in  the  West-Indies. 

Agriculturists  have  many  vague  denominations  of  soil,  such  as 
loamy,  marie,  sandy,  lime-stone,  gravelly,  stoney,  poor  light  soil, 
rich  black  soil.  These  are  tolerably  descriptive  in  a  general  way  • 
but  as  the  theory  of  the  art  improves,  we  shall  need  more  accuracy. 
Of  the  primitive  earths,  none  need  be  noticed  under  this  section, 
but  silex  or  sand ;  argil  or  clay ;  and  calx  or  lime.  The  others  have 
never  been  yet  found  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  any  notable 
effect,  except  in  the  hilrtful  quality  of  magnesia  when  combined  with 
lime,  first  noticed  by  Mr.  Tennant.  It  is  evident  that  for  the 
mechanical  purpose  of  increasing  or  lessening  adhesion,  supporting 
the  plant  and  admitting  is  fibres  to  shoot  more  freely ;  clay,  sand, 
and  lime-stone  are  mutually  manures  to  each  other,  acting  mechanic- 
ally by  their  mixture.  Thus  in  Chesire  and  Norfolk,  in  England, 
the  clay  and  marl  pits  furnish  an  excellent  and  permament  manure  to 
the  sandy  soil  above. 

But  it  is  not  merely  the  mechanical  mixture  of  soils  that  may  be 
useful  j  for  the  experiments  ©f  M#  D'Arcet  and  M.  Farboni  have 


©N    MANURE.  223 

shewn  us  that  in  the  temperature  of  L00°  of  Fah'r.  different  earths 
have  different  capacities  for  retaining  moisture;  so  that  by  'he  judi- 
cious aduiixtures,  this  valuable  property  in  <.oils  may  be  increase*)  or 
diminished;  and  as  none  of  the  earths  are  found  perfectly  pure  in 
soils,  (clay,  for  instance,  retaining  66  per  cent,  of  sand  without 
losing  is  distinctive  character)  a  field  is  opened  for  ascertaining  i his 
property  in  different  admixtures  and  combinations.  Foi  iVir.  Wedie- 
wood  discovered  that  earths  would  chemically  combine  in  the  moist 

way.  .  .    |#    .* 

Beside  the  tenacity  of  soils,  and  their  capability  of  retaining  mois- 
ture, their  depth  is  also  to  be  considered  by  the  cultivator,  dome 
plants  have  long  tap-roots,  such  as  rhubard,  liquorice,  carrots,  mad- 
der, &c.  These  are  evidently  unfit  for  any  soils,  but  of  loose  adhe- 
sion and  considerable  depth.  Equally  preposterous  would  it  be  to 
use  the  soil  like  the  Genesee  flats,  of  twenty  feet  deep  of  rich  mould, 
for  grasses  that  spread  upon  the  surface.  Again,  where  soils  are  na- 
turally sandy,  dry,  and  arid,  and  the  climate  warm,  plants  should  be 
selected,  whose  roots  penetrate  deep  and  beyond  the  influence  of  at- 
mospheric evaporation.  Thus,  in  this  country  as  in  the  South  of 
France,  lucerne,  (medica)  and  chicory  ( cichorium  intubus )  would 
be  luxuriant  where  no  other  grass  would  grow. 

We  come  now  to  consider  (in  this  sketch  III)  the  mode  of  accele- 
rating the  growth  and  increasing  the  size  of  plants. 

This  is  done  by  manures.  Hitherto,  every  substance  added  to 
the  soil  or  to  the  plant  while  growing,  which  effected,  or  was  m^ant 
to  effect  these  purposes,  was  called  a  manure.  But,  from  what  has 
been  said,  manures  ought  to  be  considered  in  at  least  three  divisions. 
1.  Manures  of  nourishment.  2.  Manures  of  stimulous  S.  Mechan- 
ical manures. 

Manures  of  Nourishment.  Five  different  theories  have  been  start- 
ed on  this  subject. 

1.  Practical  men  have  for  ages  discovered  the  use  of  dung  in  agri- 
culture, and  hence  the  common  and  oldest  theory  was,  that  the  juices 
of  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  substances  were  the  chief  pabu- 
lum of  plants. 

2.  Van  Helmont's  experiment  suggested  water  as  the  pabulum, 
but  although  some  plants  will  live,  none  will  flourish  in  mere  water. 
The  French  experiment  of  the  decomposition  of  water,  and  the  dis- 
covery of  the  excretion  of  oxygen  seem  to  give  countenance  to  this 
theory. 

3.  Dr.  Hunter,  of  York,  in  his  Georgical  Essays,  persuaded 
the  world  for  some  time,  that  oil  was  the  pabulum  of  vegetables. 
But  neither  his  theory  nor  his  practice  succeeded. 

4.  Dr.  Priestly,  who  had  more  right  to  form  theories  and  conjec- 
tures than  any  man  living,  (because  he  has  furnished  more  facts  of 
extensive  application  in  chemical  philosophy  than  any  other  man,) 
suggested  that  phlogiston  was  the  pabulum.  Some  experiments  df 
Arthur  Young,  made  in  consequence  of  this  supposition,  tend  to 
support  it.  But  though  in  all  probability  inflammable  gas  may  be 
converted  into  nutriment  to  vegetables,  yet  it  is  far  from  being  true 
that  this  is  the  ©nly  gas  which  can.     The  gases  that  escape  from  a 


224  ON   MAN XJRt. 

dunghill  are  surely  entitled  to  consideration ;  but,  of  these,  infiain- 
mable  air  or  hydrogen  is  but  a  small  part  :  azote,  carbonic  acid,  al- 
kaline air,  carbon,  and  carburctted  hydrogen,  and  perhaps  sulphur, 
dissolved  in  alkaline  air,  are  parts  of  the  products  of  this  decompos- 
ed mixture.  We  know  too,  that  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  electricity, 
and  the  galvanic  fluid,  seem  to  aid  vegetation  to  a  certain  degree  ; 
but  the  action  of  all  these  gases  and  fluids  are  more  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for,  on  the  doctrine  of  stimulus,  than  of  pabulum,  unless 
where  carbon  enters  into  their  composition.  That  oxygen  is  not  nu- 
triment, is  clear,  from  its  being  an  excretion  of  plants  in  a  healthy 
state,  and  in  vigorous  action,  under  the  influence  of  the  sun,  as 
Dr.  Priestley,  and  afterwards  M.  Ingenhouz  discovered.  It  is 
evident,  from  numerous  experiments,  that  plants  take  up  watery 
fluids  and  juices;  but  there  is  no  experiment  that  shews  us,  that  they 
take  up  air  of  any  kind,  though  they  excrete  it.  Hence,  although 
these  fluids  may  contain  the  elements  of  phlogiston,  or  the»combina- 
tions  of  phlogiston,  this  latter  cannot  of  itself  be  taken  as  the  food 
of  plants.  Both  plants  and  animals  are  resolvable  into  gases,  of 
which  phlogiston  may  be  a  part,  but  there  is  some  thing  else  which 
feeds  and  dilates  the  muscles  of  animals  and  the  leaves  of  .trees. 

5.  Dissatisfied  with  former  theories,  Mr.  Kirwin  has  proposed  car- 
bon or  charcoal  as  the  food  of  plants ;  and  declares  his  opinion  that 
if  charcoal  could  be  rendered  soluble  in  water  it  would  be  the  most 
efficacious  manure.  It  is  true  that  charcoal  is  found  in  the  incinera- 
tion of  all  undecomposed  vegetables,  and  that  they  most  probably 
contain  much  pure  carbon,  but  they  contain  also  much  alkali, 
much  oxygen,  much  azote,  nitrogen,  &c;  nor  is  there  any  fact 
to  prove  that  charcoal  (or  the  oxyde  of  carbon)  is  either  souble 
in  any  liquid,  or  taken  up  as  charcoal  by  any  vegetable,  or  de- 
composed by  any  natural  process;*  soot  as  a  top  dressing  is  a 
tolerable  manure  in  England,  but  its  use  may  be  accounted  for 
from  the  saline  substances  it  contains.  Whatever  be  the  pabulum  of 
vegetables,  appears  from  every  fact  hitherto  known,  to  be  generally 
exhibited  in  the  form  of  a  liquid.  That  liquid  may  contain,  and 
indeed  does  generally  contain,  (if  dung  be  employed)  the  bases  of 
hydrogen,  of  fixed  and  volatile  alkali,  as  well  as  azote,  carbon,  oxy- 
gen, and  unascertained  compounds  of  these.  Hence  it  appears 
that,  whatever  theory  of  ingenious  speculators  be  adopted  as  the 
simple  and  homogeneous  pabulum  of  vegetable  bodies  in  a  living 
state,  the  old  theory  and  the  old  practice  must,  and  ought  to  pre- 
vail, namely,  that  the  staple  manure  of  nourishment  is  dung  (i.  e.) 
decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  substances  ;  and  although  it  may 
be  of  use  by  dung-heaps  to  aid  this  decomposition,  yet  even  in  an 
undecomposed,  or  partially  decomposed  state,  this  gradual  decom- 
position amounts  in  the  end  to  the  same  thing.  This  is  applicable 
to  ground-bone,  woollen  rags,  horn  shavings,  &c.  All  the  differ- 
ence is  that  time  is  gained  by  the  artificial  and  complete  decomposi- 
tion of  these  substances,  but  at  the  loss  of  substance. 

[*  Arthur  Young  has  shewn  that  carbon  or  charcoal  may  be  dissolved  in  a 
boiling  alkaline  solution,  which  then  becomes  the  most  powerful  of  all  manures . 
Annals  of  ^gr.—T.  C.} 


ON    MANURE.  225 

Manures  of  stimulus.  Whatever  accelerates  the  growth,  or  in- 
creases the  size  of  the  plant,  and  does  not  actually  enter  into  the 
composition  and  substance  of  the  vegetable,  can  only  be  considered 
as  a  manure,  by  stimulating  the  healthy  fibre  of  the  plant,  by  des- 
troying the  dead  and  decaying  fibres,  and  by  assisting  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  undecomposed  animal  and  vegetable  substances  dis- 
persed through  the  soil.  It  is  thus  that  gypsum  or  plaister  of  Paris 
acts,  being  the  most  efficacious  septic  among  the  neutral  saline  sub- 
stances. Of  these  manures  of  stimulus,  none  are  as  yet  in  common 
use  but  lime,  gypsum,  and  common  salt. 

Lime  is,  limestone  deprived  of  its  water  and  carbonic  acid  by  fire. 
In  this  state  its  stimulating  powers  are  obviously  much  greater,  than 
in  its  natural  and  neutral  state  of  limestone.  But  even  pounded 
limestone  is  a  promoter  of  vegetation  on  clayey  and  sandy  lands, 
and  this  earth  appears  to  be  a  specific  stimulus  to  white  clover,  and 
perhaps  to  the  potato.  Hereto  may  be  referred  the  rubbish  of  old 
buildings,  and  marl,  which  is  clay  with  about  one  half  of  limestone. 

Common  salt.  This,  until  the  duty  of  two  thousand  per  cent,  in 
England,  was  a  very  common  manure  in  Cheshire  ;  the  facts  relat- 
ing to  it,  in  this  point  of  view,  are  collected  in  Watson's  Chemical 
Essays.     In  this  country  gypsum  is  much  cheaper. 

Gypsum,  plaister  of  Paris,  ritriolated  lime,  or  sulphat  of  lime. 
This  has  not  been  certainly  found  in  any  plant,  but  by  [V?  Model, 
accidentally,  in  rhubarb*,  even  this  we  suspect  to  be  a  fallacy  for 
the  characters  of  gypsum  were  not  then  well  ascertained.  A  bout 
two  bushels  per  acre  to  clover  or  corn  seems  to  be  a  full  quantity.  It 
slowly  attracts  the  moisture  from  the  air,  and  dissolves  gradually 
When  strewed  on  the  ground.  It  comes  here  from  France  and  the 
bay  of  Fundy,  and  has  also  been  lately  found  in  New-Hampshire 
a.jd  on  Lake  Erie.  There  is  also  some  in  Maryland  on  the  Chesa- 
peake, about  one  hundred  miles  below  Baltimore,  at  Cayuga  Lake 
in  the  Genesee,  and  in  the  SulpHur  Spring  (so  called)  on  the  road 
from  Canadaraqua  to  Geneva:  at  Abingdon  also,  in  Virginia,  gyp- 
sum usually  accompanies  the  salt  formation  as  in  the  Genesee  coun- 
try. As  it  is  not  a  component  part  of  any  plant,  either  in  wh<  If  or 
in  its  own  component  parts,  it  cannot  act  upon  healthy  vegetables 
but  as  a  stimulus,  and  upon  diseased  and  dead  ones,  by  its  septic 
power.  Experiments  remain  to  be  tried  as  to  other  manures  of  this 
description. 

Mechanical  manures.  Their  action  is  giving  depth  by  new  addi- 
tion; in  giving  tenacity  by  mixture,  as  clay  with  sand,  or,  vice 
versa;  in  giving  capacity  to  retain  moisture,  on  the  principles  sug- 
gested by  the  experiments  of  Fabroni  and  D'Arcet,  is  too  obvious 
to  require  further  elucidation. 

buch  are  the  ideas  that  occur  as  throwing  some  light  on  the  theory 
of  this  complicated  and  most  important  subject,  and  suggesting  the 
rationale  of  the  application  of  manures  in  cases  not  hitherto  well 
understood. 

Gypsum  particularly  deserves  attention,  considering  that  it  has 
effected  almost  a  complete  revolution  in  the  agriculture  of  Pennsyl- 

*  Journ.  de  Phys.  vol.  6.  page  14. 

29  .        '    • 


226  ON    MANURE. 

vania.  Many  thousand  acres  of  land  hitherto  barren,  have  beea 
converted  into  excellent  pasture  -round,  by  its  surprising  influence. 
Even  the  products  of  land,  tolerably  good,  have  been  doubled,  and 
in  some  instances  treble  rl  by  using  it.  The  theory  of  its  action  was 
not  until  lately  understood.  Judge  Peters,  of  Philadelphia,  who 
firs'  collected  the  opinions  of  our  farmers  on  the  subject  of  the  gyp- 
sum as  a  manure,  ventured  to  suggest,  that  the  vitriolic  acid  was  the 
fertilizing  principle  of  this  manure.  The  chemists  of  our  country 
either  did  not  assent  to  the  theory,  or  laughed  at  it.  A  fact  however 
has  been  communicated  by  Mr.  Livingston,  formerly  our  minister  in 
Prance,  whirh  would  induce  a  belief  in  the  theory. 

In  an  excursion  says  Mr.  Livingston,  "  I  lately  made  into  Flan- 
ders, I  observed,  at  some  distance  from  the  road,  several  large  beds 
of  earth,  that  appeared  to  me  to  emit  smoke  and  flame,  which  two 
m  mi  were  tending.  I  stopped  the  post  chaise,  and  went  to  examine 
ii  I  found  that  ir  was  pyrites  sufficiently  impregnated  with  sulphur 
t  /urn  when  dry.  This  was  laid  in  beds  and  set  on  fire.  They  en- 
deavoured to  extinguish  the  fire  when  the  ashes  became  of  a  red  colour* 
If  it  burned  longer,  it  became  black.,  and  the  quality  was  not  so  good. 
This  earth,  so  burned,  was  easily  reduced  to  powder,  by  a  wooden 
mallet:  and,  in  this  state  was  carried  on  the  back  of  asses  forty  or 
fifty  miles  as  a  manure,  and  was  used  particularly  for  grass  at  the 
rate  of  about  six  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  seed  grain  was-also  covered 
with  it  as  with  gypsum  in  our  country.  This  circumstance  induces 
me  to  believe,  that  the  sulphuric  acid  is,  both  in  this  and  in  gypsum, 
the  fertilizing  principle,  and  may  suggest  many  other  ways  of  apply- 
ing that  cheap  material  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture.  Is  is  very 
presumable  that  in  this  very  slow  combustion,  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
absorbed  by  the  ashes,  or  other  earths,  while  the  inflamable  matter 
is  dissipated  ;  and,  that  the  union  of  the  alkali  and  the  acid  forms  a 
salt  not  unlike  in  its  chemical  relations,  the  gypsum,  or  peihaps  one 
that  is  more  soluble,  more  impregnated  with  the  acid.  Perhaps  dilu- 
ted vitriolic  acid,  directly  applied,  would  be  found  equally  useful,  or 
rendered  more  valuable  by  being  combined  with  wood  ashes,  when 
native  gypsum  could  not  be  conviently  had.  If  I  rightly  recollect, 
Duhamel  mentions  that  sulphuric  acid  scattered  over  weeds  with  a 
view  to  destroy  them,  made  them  grow  with  additional  vigour. 
From  the  place  where  they  were  burning  the  earth,  I  proceeded  to 
the  ore  bed,  which  I  examined,  and  found  the  earth  very  similar  to 
what  I  have  seen  on  my  own  estate  at  Clermont,  and  which  may  in- 
deed be  found  in  many  black  meadows.  Pyrites  abounds  in  the 
United  states;  every  farmer,  therefore,  ought  to  examine  their  estates 
for  this  substance  with  great  care,  as  in  all  probability  many  of  them 
contain  treasures  of  this  kind,  of  which  the  proprietors  have  hitherto 
been  entirely  ignorant. 

[I  have  tried  without  success,  to  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  sulphur, 
and  I  disincline  to  the  value  of  Mr  Livingston's  observations. — 
T.  C] 

For  the  purpose  of  supplying  adult  vegetables  with  nourishment, 
ve  should  first  consider,  says  Or  Darwin,  what  kinds  of  matter  are 
Knost  prevalent  or  most  necessasy  in  their  composition :  what  of  these 


ON    MANURE.  227 

substances  they  can  absorb  without  previous  decomposition :  and 
lastly,  how  to  expedite  fh^  decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal 
substances  on,  or  in  the  soil,  like  the  digestive  processes  in  the 
stomachs  of  animals;  we  may  thus  become  acquainted  with  the 
sources  and  the  management  of  manures. 

Vegetables  by  analysis  afford  three  essential  principles,  carbon  or 
the  oxyd  of  charcoal;  hydrogen  or  inflamable  air;  and  oxygen  or 
pure  air:  the  proportion  of  which,  vary,  according  to  the  agents 
which  have  occured  to  its  development,  and  according  to  the  matrix 
which  received  and  assimdated  them,  in  order  to  .  reate  those  combi- 
nations which  are  varied  almost  to  infinity,  by  their  forms  and  pro- 
perties, and  known  by  the  terms  »f  salt,  oil,  and  mucilage.  It  ap- 
pears, therefore,  needless  to  seek  those  combinations  in  the  different 
substances  which  are  used  as  manure,  when  we  wish  to  determine  the 
nature  of  them,  and  explain  their  manner  of  acting  in  vegetation, 
because  supposing  it  true,  that  these  salts,  these  oils,  these  mucil- 
ages, exist  in  their  combined  state,  nothing  but  their  constituent  ele- 
ments above  mentioned,  can  possibly  have  any  action. 

The  substances  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants,  are, 
therefore,  nothing  but  products  of  the  decomposition  of  air  and  wa- 
ter, and  the  combinations  of  the  constituent  principle,  of  these  two 
fluids,  determined  by  their  power  which  presides  in  the  seed,  and 
which  thence  has  passed  into  the  plant. 

Manure  is  usually  divided  into  four  classes,  viz.  Animal,  Vegeta- 
ble, Fossil,  and  Fluid. 

I.  Animal  Manures  comprehend  the  several  parts  of  animals, 
such  as  their  fat,  dung,  urine,  &c. 

1.  Dung.  Having  already  pointed  out  the  general  properties  of 
dun£,  under  that  a;  tide,  we  shall  only  observe,  that  the  excrementi- 
tious  matter  of  privies  is  supposed  to  exceed  every  other  kind  of  ma- 
nure, during  the  first  year  it  is  applied;  in  the  second,  its  beneficial 
effects  are  less  evident;  and,  in  the  third  year  they  almost  entirely 
disappear.  The  quantity  necessary  for  land  in  a  good  condition  is, 
bv  Mr.  Middleton,  computed  to  be  about  two  loads  per  acre,  annual- 
ly; which,  in  his  opinion,  will  always  preserve  its  fertility.  He 
farther  remarks,  that  exhausted  ground  may  be  perfectly  restored, 
by  laying  on  four  or  five  loads  of  night-soil  per  acre,  for  the  first 
year;  after  which,  two  loads  annually  will  be  found  amply  sufficient 
to  keep  the  land  in  the  highest  degree  of  cultivation 

The  matter  of  privies  is  known  to  be  a  most  valuable  manure. 
In  China  and  Japan,  there  are  laws  to  prevent  its  waste.  The  cultiva- 
tors prefer  it  to  the  manure  from  horses  and  cattle,  as  it  does  not  con- 
tain the  seeds  of  weeds,  and  is  much  stronger  than  stable  manure. 

If  the  privies  of  families  were  lined  with  cement,  (which  see)  so 
as  to  retain  the  moisture,  (the  most  enriching  part);  and  if  earth, 
fine  sifted  coal  ashes,  but  more  especially  fresh  slacked  lime  were 
frequently  thrown  in  the  privies,  all  disagreeable  and  unwholesome 
smells  would  be  prevented,  and  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  com- 
post greatly  increaseed.  By  this  management,  its  removal  would 
be  also  rendered  inoffensive  to  those  employed. 


Z2H  ON    MANURE, 

From  Simonde's  View  of  the  Agriculture  of  Tuscany,  a  very  in- 
teresting work,  it  appears,  that  night-soil  is  as  highly  prized  there, 
as  in  China  and  Japan  ;  but  he  remarks  the  very  disagreeable  effluvia 
which  exhales  from  it  when  spread  upon  the  ground.  It  should  never 
be  used,  except  when  joined  with  earth  or  vegetable  matters,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  five  or  six. 

2.  Fish — Herrings,  pilchards,  and  mackerel,  afford  an  excellent 
manure;  being  chiefly  used  in  those  parts  of  Britain  where  they  are 
caught  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  seldom  fail  to  procure  rich 
crops 

3.  Bones,  to  which  we  refer. 

It  may  be  here  stated,  in  addition  to  what  Dr.  Willich  says  on  the 
utility  of  this  article  as  a  manure :  that  in  mgland,  the  grinding  of 
bones  for  the  farmer  is  now  a  trade.  Bones  mixed  in  a  heap  of  lime 
will  soon  be  reduced  to  powder,  but  the  fa*  mer  should  observe  ,vhe- 
th<-T  the  same  beneficial  effect  would  result  from  the  use  of  the  bones 
thus  treated,  as  when  powdered  by  the  mill.  An  experiment,  upon 
a  small  scale,  may  be  easily  made. 

[Bones,  moreover,  contain  a   great  quantity  of  gelantine  even  in 
their  dry  state.     This  decomposes  gradually.     So  that  ground  bones, " 
or  bone-dust,  is  a  most  valuable  top- dressing.     Latterly  even  human 
bones  have  been  imported  into  England  from  Germany. — T.  C] 

4.  Urine  is  well  calculated  for  manure:  it  is  so  far  preferable  to 
dun^,  as  no  seeds  of  weeds  are  deposited  in  the  ground  with  the  for- 
mer ;  and,  if  the  land  be  well  watered  with  this  fluid,  such  irrigation 
will  be  attended  with  the  best  effects. 

5.  Horn  Shavings. 

6.  The  clippings  or  scraps  of  skins  and  hides  (being  the  refuse  of 
furriers  and  curriers;  are  of  great  utility  on  land  intended  to  be  sown 
with  wheat  or  barley.  They  should  be  scattered  by  hand  on  the  soil, 
and  speedily  ploughed  in;  because  any  peices,  left  on  the  surface, 
are  immediately  devoured  by  crows  *nd  dogs.  The  proper  quantity 
of  this  manure  is^  two  or  three  quarters  per  acre,  which  should  be 
scattered  a  short  time  before  seed  is  committed  to  the  ground  :  such 
chippings  are  peculairly  calculated  for  light  dry  soils,  but  are  seldom 
productive  of  any  benefit  to  wet  or  clay  lands 

7.  Sheep's  trotters,  and  fellmonger's  cuttings,  are  employed  on 
similar  soils,  though  in  the  proportion  of  from  20  to  40  bushels  per 
acre.  They  should  likewise  be  ploughed  in,  to  prevent  the  depreda- 
tions of  dogs  and  crows. 

8.  The  soiled  or  damaged  locks  of  wool,  or  trimmings  of  sheep, 
deserve  to  be  more  generally  known  as  a  fertilizing  article:  they  are 
at  present  chiefly  used  in  England,  for  ameliorating  the  hop-grounds. 

9.  IV ) alien  rags  are  an  excellent  manure :  but,  instead  of  being 
collected  in  a  heap,  similar  to  a  dunghill,  they  ought  to  be  cut  in- 
to small  peices  in  a  paper  mill;  strewed  by  hand;  and  ploughed  in, 
three  months  before  wheat  or  barley  is  commonly  sown  :  the  usual 
quantity  is  from  six  to  ten  cwt.  per  acre ;  though,  in  some  parts  of  i  -ng- 
land,  a  ton  weight  is  spread  on  each  acre,  every  third  year,  for  hops. 
On  account  of  retaining  their  moisture,  such  rags  are  eminently  adapted 
to  dry,  gravelly,  or  chalky  soils ;  the  fertility  of  which  will  thus  be 


ON    MANURE,  229 

considerably  increased,  especially  during  dry  seasons.  The  only 
obstacle  to  their  more  general  adoption,  appears  to  be  the  apprehen- 
sion entertained  by  many  farmers,  of  catching  the  small-pox  by 
chopping  and  scattering  the  rags;  but,  since  the  virulence  of  that 
disorder  may  be  subdued  by  vacination,  those  fears  are  certainly 
groundless. 

II.  Vegetable  Manures  are  either  whole  plants,  or  parts  of  vege- 
tables, together  with  their  ashes,  &c.  which  are  sometimes  ploughed 
in,  while  growing,  and  are  afterwards  burnt,  or  otherwise  decom- 
posed. 

1.  Wheat-straw,  according  to  Mr.  Bordley,  is  a  very  valuable  ar- 
ticle; but  it  ought  to  be  ploughed  in,  "when  it  is  muck-wet  from 
soaking  rains  that  have  softened  it ;"  for,  if  it  be  turned  into  the 
ground  under  les%  favourable  circumstances,  it  is  seldom  of  any  ad- 
vantage. 

2.  Weeds,  such  as  dock-root,  cabbage  stocks,  the  roots  of  couch- 
grass,  &c.  are  of  great  service:  hence  Dr.  Darwin  pertinently  re- 
marks, that  they  should  not  be  improvidently  thrown  into  the  high- 
way, or  consumed  by  fire,  as  too  frequently  happens  :  on  the  contra- 
ry, if  laid  on  the  ground  in  heaps,  occasionally  turned  over,  and 
covered  with  soil,  they  will  inevitably  perish,  and  speedily  ferment, 
on  account  of  the  sugar  and  mucilage  which  they  contain.  The  de- 
composition of  weeds  is  still  more  effectually  accelerated,  on  adding 
quick  or  newly  burnt  lime,  by  which  they  are  rapidly  converted  into 
a  most  valuable  manure.  For  this  purpose,  Mr  Henry  Brown,  an 
ingenious  chemist,  directs  a  layer  of  green  vegetable  matter  to  be 
formed,  about  one  foot  in  thickness,  on  which  a  very  thin  stratum  of 
pulverized  lime  is  to  be  scattered;  and  such  alternate  layers  are  to  be 
continued  till  the  pile  is  of  a  sufficient  height.  When  these  mate- 
rials have  lain  together  for  a  few  hours,  a  dissolution  of  parts  will 
commence;  and,  in  order  to'  prevent  the  inflaraation  of  the  whole 
mass,  a  {exv  sods,  or  a  small  portion  of  fresh  vegetable  matter, 
ought  to  be  added.  In  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  process 
will  be  complete,  when  a  quantity  of  excellent  ashes  will  be  ready  to 
be  laid  on  the  land.  Weeds  and  vegetables  of  every  description,  if 
used  green,  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  and  thus  be  productive  of 
double  advantage  to  the  farmer;  because  they  may  not  only  be  col- 
lected at  a  small  expense,  but  will,  in  a  few  years,  render  his  farm 
more  valuable,  by  exterminating  all  noxious  plants. 

3.  Sea-weed  is  a  valuable  manure  for  garden-grounds,  and  de- 
stroys every  kind  of  vermin.  The  best  is  cut  from  the  rocks  on  the 
sea  coast;  but,  as  this  marine  vegetable  is  frequently  thrown  on 
shore,  it  may  be  useful  to  state,  that  the  better  kind  resembles  the 
haulms  of  peas;  an  inferior  sort  is  known  by  its  long,  shrub-like 
stalk :  they  may  be  either  spread  on  the  land,  in  a  fresh  state,  or 
previously  laid  up  in  heaps,  and  suffered  to  putrefy. 

Sea-weed  is  much  used  on  the  sea-coast  of  New- York,  as  a  ma- 
nure. 

River,  or  pond-weeds,  and  especially  the  Rivcr-eonferva,  arc 
equally  beneficial ;  being  particularly  calculated  for  turnips  or  wheat, 
if  ploughed  in  upon  a  sandy  soil ;  but  they  produce  no  effect  on  land 


239  ON    MANURE. 

th^t  abounds  with  springs,  , or  is  liable  to  inundation:  the  quantity 
laid  on  varies  from  twelve  to  fourteen  loads  per  acre. 

v  'on  -roerahle  benefit  lias  likewise  been  derived  from  lurning  [•■  vet- 
ches, bui-k  wheat,  or  rape,  upon  old-ploughed  lands,  which  are  rhus 
greatly  improved.  Turnips,  when  injured  by  the  frost,  mav  also 
be  employed  as  a  valuable  manure;  because  they  are  believed  to  pre- 
vent the  germination  of  seeds  contained  in  weeds,  which  enter  the 
ht  ps  of  dung;  and,  when  stirred  among  the  latter,  promote  their 
put refaction 

4  the  ashes of  fern,  stubble,  peat,  &c.  of  which  we  have  al- 
ready treated  in  our  first  volume. 

5.  Peat  is  not  sufficiently  known  as  an  article  of  manure.  It  is 
usually  employed  in  a  burnt  state,  for  a  top-dressing ;  but  as  it  is 
formed  of  the  solid  parts  of  morasses,  and  consists  of  vegetable 
fibres,  more  or  less  decomposed,  it  may  be  laid  on  clayey  soils  with 
the  greatest  advantage.  Dr.  Darwin  remarks  that  peat  ought  to  be 
considered  as  an  inestimable  treasure  to  the  farms  in  its  vicinity  :  he 
suggests  the  propriety  of  throwing  it  previously  into  heaps,  either 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  lime;  then  exposing  it  to  the  air,  and 
draining  the  water  from  it,  in  orde<  to  expedite  its  decomposition. 
[Peat  is  found  in  abandance  on  the  Delaware  about  3  miles  from  Phil- 
adelphia, and  thence  upward. — T.   C] 

"Peat,  or  Moss  [i.arth,  is  a  valuable  manure.  From  experiments 
made  with  alkaline  salts  (  potash)  and  peat,  says  Dundonald,  it  can 
be  asserted,  [?  T  C]  that  the  effects  of  such  a  mixture,  weight 
for  weight,  are  equal,  if  not  superior  to  those  of  dung. 

Peat,  when  intended  to  be  used  as  a  manure,  should  be  dug  up  at 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  from  the  surface,  in  small  peices,  and 
left  exposed  to  the  air  for  three  or  four  months,  or  till  the  dry  weather 
of  summer,  or  the  frosts  of  winter,  render  it  convenient  to  carry  it 
away. 

From  a  meadow  dressed  with  forty  loads  per  acre,  with  a  com- 
post, made  of  three  fourth  parts  of  peat  earth,  and  one  fourth  part 
of  dung,  greater  and  more  lasting  crops  of  hay  were  produced,  than 
from  the  like  quantity  of  the  best  dung 

The  most  beneficial  preparations  or  combinations  of  peat  will  be 
found  to  be : 

Peai-earth,   with  dung  or  urine, 

Ditto,  with  alkaline  salt,  or  potash. 

Ditto,  with  lime. 

When  the  soil  d- es  not  contain  a  due  proportion  of  calcareous 
matter,  (as  old  meadows,)  the  two  last  are  preferred,  until  it  shall 
have  received  a  due  proportion  of  this  article,  so  indespensably  ne- 
cessary to  produce  sweet  herbage. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  alkaline  salt  or  potash,  are  sufficient  to 
saturate  peat-earth  enough  to  top-dress  an  acre." 

In  order  to  prepare  peat  with  lime  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Lord 
Dundonald  directs  fresh  lime,  complete] v  slacked,  to  be  mixed  with 
5  or  6  times  the  weight  of  peat,  which  should  be  moderately  humid. 

The  heat  will  be  moderate,  and  not  sufficient  10  convert  the  peat 
into  carbonaceous  matter,  or  to  throw  off,  in  a  state  of  flxable  air> 


ON    MANURE.  231 

the  acids  therein  contained  The  proportion  of  lime  should  be  rare- 
fully  attended  to,  and  the  mixing  of  the  two  substances  performed 
under  a  shed  as  too  much  rain  or  too  great  exposure  to  air,  will  pre- 
vent the  due  action  of  the  lime  upon  the  peat. 

This  preparation  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growth  of  clover, 
and  short  sweet  pasture  grasses  Alkaline  salts  are  of  much  gi>  ter 
importance  than  lime,  to  mix  with  peat,  as  the  peat  is  by  them, 
rendered  completely  solublr. 

6.  Rape-cake,  which  is  obtained  after  expressing  all  the  oily  par- 
ticles from  rape- seed,  ft  affords,  when  pulverized,  an  useful  manure 
for  wheat.  Rape-dust  is  equally  serviceable  as  a  top  dressing  for 
turnips;  and  should  be  spread  on  the  land  in  proportion  of  10  cwt. 
per  acre. 

7-  The  bark  of  oak,  or  rather  tanner's  waste,  which  has  been 
suffered  completely  to  putrefy,  affords  an  excellent  manure  for  cold, 
stiff,  clay-soils ;  one  load  being  more  efficacious  than  a  double  quan- 
tity of  the  richest  dung.  If  oak  bark  be  designed  tor  grass-land,  it 
ought  to  be  spread  shortly  after  the  29th  of  September,  that  the  win- 
ter-rains may  wash  it  into  the  ground  :  for,  if  applied  in  the  spring, 
it  will  burn  the  grass,  and  exhaust  rather  than  ameliorate  the  soil, 
for  that  season.  On  the  contrary,  if  intended  for  corn-fields,  it 
should  be  spread  immediately  before  the  last  ploughing,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  turned  down,  so  as  to  come  in  contract  with  the  early 
fibres  or  roots  of  the  corn  ;  because,  when  lying  too  near  the  surface 
during  the  winter,  it  unnaturally  hastens  vegetation;  and,  with  the 
approaching  spring,  the  young  buds  of  the  grain  perish  from  the 
severity  of  night-frosts. 

III.  Fossil  Manures  consist  of  various  kinds  of  earth,  sand,  chalk, 
marl,  &c.  all  which,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  contribute  to  the 
amelioration  of  land.  See  Crag,  Clay,  Chalk,  Gypsum,  Lime, 
Marl,  and  Sand,  t 

1.  Coal-ashes  are  of  extensive  utility  as  a  manure.  [Very  doubt- 
ful T.  C]  They  are  particularly  adapted  to  clay-lands,  for  correct- 
ing their  cold,  ungenial  quality  ;  but  they  should  not  be  ploughed  in 
too  deep.  These  ashe>  may  likewise  be  employed  as  a  top-dressing 
for  clover,  on  dry  chalky  lands,  over  which  they  ought  to  be  scattetv 
ed  in  the  months  of  March  or  April,  in  the  proportion  of  from  50  to 
60  bushels  per  acre :  they  have  also  been  advantageously  spread  on 
sward  or  grass-lands,  either  in  the  winter,  or  during  the  spring. 

2.  Soot,  which  will  be  discussed  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

3.  Clay,  when  previously  calcined  or  burnt,  improves  cold,  wet, 
sandy  soils;  and  has  be^n  found  very  serviceable  to  close,  stiff  lands. 
The  excellence  of  this  manure  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  North  Ri- 
ding of  Yorkshire,  where  the  ground  is  so  sandy  as  to  produce, 
with  any  other  manure,  only  r^e:  with  clay,  it  yeilds  abundant 
crops  of  oats,  barley,  &c.  The  usual  proportion,  laid  on  meadow, 
pasture,  or  corn  lands,  is  from  ten  to  twelve  Joads  per  acre  :  and  so 
permanent  are  its  fertilizing  properties,  that  it  becomes  unnecessary 
to  repeat  the  operation  of  claying,  for  the  period  of  forty-five  years. 

4.  Hand,  to  which  we  refer.  [Clay  i*>  a  mechanical  manure  for 
.sand,  aiding  it  to  retain  moisture,  and  manure,  and  to  steady  the. 


232  ON    MANURE. 

roots  of  vegetables  growing  in  it,  and  to  prevent  it  being   blown 
away.     Vice  versa,  sand  is  a  mechanical  manure  for  clay  soils. 

5.  Salt  is  justly  asserted  to  be  one  of  the  most  grateful  manures  to 
vegetation,  as  cattle  are  not  only  more  healthy  but  fatten  more  speedi- 
ly on  pastures,  where  it  has  been  properly  scattered.  It  is  of  great 
utility  for  raising  turnips,  as  well  as  for  producing  abundance  of 
corn;  the  straw  being  strong;  the  grain  t hin-hulled,  heavy,  and  on 
the  whole,  better  than  that  from  any  other  manures.  Besides,  it  sweet 
ens  sour  pastures;  improves  and  increases  the  herbage;  while  it 
destroys  all  noxious  insects.  The  proper  quantity  is  from  12  to  16 
bushels  per  acre;  for,  if  a  large  proportion  be  used,  its  beneficial 
effects  will  be  diminished,  and  vegetation  be  eventually  destroyed. 

IV.  Fluid  Manures  comprehend  Water;  Oil-Compost;  Mud 
and  all  liquid  matters  that  are  employed  with  a  view  to  ameliorate 
land. 

Under  the  article  of  Irrigation,  we  have  treated  of  the  utility  of 
water,  and  pointed  out  the  best  manner  of  applying  it  to  the  soil; 
we  shall,  therefore,  at  present,  only  remark,  that  the  liquor  of 
farm-yards  has  been  successfully  tried  on  meadows,  and  wheat- 
fields,  both  of  which  are  thus  rendered  uncommonly  fertile.  This 
fluid  may  also  be  used  with  great  advantage  for  land  sown  with  bar- 
ley, oats,  or  other  grain;  but,  if  it  be  intended  for  grass-land,  it 
ought  to  be  sprinkled  on  them  only  during  the  winter,  when  the  rains 
wash  the  saline  particles  into  the  soil ;  or  early  in  the  spring,  when 
the  ground  is  laid  up  for  hay  ;  because  no  cattle  will  feed  on  grass, 
while  the  salt  or  dung  adhere  to  the  blade.  Farther,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  convey  this  ameliorating  liquor  to  the  field  during  dry 
weather,  when  the  dung-water  in  the  reservoirs  is  of  a  deep-brown 
colour,  and  strongly  impregnated  with  salt  Thus,  the  land  may  be 
irrigated  as  often  as  occasion  may  require;  and  the  pools  kept  con- 
stantly empty,  for  the  reception  of  fresh  fertilizing  matter. 

As  manure  promotes  the  growth  of  plants;  as  its  fermentation 
and  warmth  disposes  the  soil  for  the  more  easy  admission  of  nour- 
ishing moisture  from  the  air ;  and  as  it  thus  eventually  contributes  to 
the  support  of  and  comfort  of  mankind,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to 
be  applied,  merits  some  attention. 

Every  kind  of  manure,  Mr.  Bordley  justly  observes,  ought  to  be 
carefully  collected,  duly  sheltered,  and  ploughed  in,  as  speedily  as 
possible  after  it  has  been  carried  to  the fi eld;  the  implements  and 
labourers  being  ready  on  the  spot.  He  directs  the  loads  to  be  ranged 
in  lengths;  the  dung  to  be  spread  and  immediately  ploughed  in, 
"line  by  line;"  because  it  more  readily  dissolves  in  the  ground  when 
newly  covered,  and  its  whole  strength  is  thus  secured  to  the  soil. 

This  is  an  important  direction,  for  which  there  is  much  room. 

Where  the  manure  collected  in  heaps  is  to  be  ploughed  under  clay- 
ey soils,  that  are  liable  to  become  too  solid  and  impenetrable  to  the 
fibres  of  wheat,  or  other  plants;  and  also,  where  potatoes,  or  simi- 
lar bulbous  roots  are  intended  to  be  turned  in,  with  a  view  to  pro- 
duce a  crop  beneath  the  soil ;  Dr.  Darwin  conceives  the  most  advan- 
tageous method  of  using  such  compost  would  be,  to  bury  it  before  it 
is  perfectly  decomposed ;  for  it  will  thus  prevent  the  surface  of  the 


ON    MANURE.  233 

fand  from  becoming  too  firm  :  and,  notwithstanding  the  putrefaction 
will  consequently  be  somewhat  retarded,  vet  the  fertilizing  sub- 
stances will  in  the  end  totally  decay,  and  afford  to  the  roots  an  equal, 
though  more  gradual,  portion  of  nourishment.  The  most  proper 
seasons  for  ploughing  or  turning  in  such  manures,  Dr.  Darwin  agrees 
with  Mr.  Bordley,  to  be  immediately  before  the  seeds  are  sown,  or 
the  roots  are  set :  because  the  atmospheric  air,  which  is  buried  with 
the  dung,  in  consequence  of  its  union  with  carbon  in  the  interstices 
of  the  earth,  gradually  evolves  a  genial  heat,  that  greatly  promotes 
vegetation. 

With  respect  to  those  manures,  which  are  spread  on  the  surface  of 
grass  or  other  land,  and  which  are  called  top-dressings,  the  most 
favourable  season  for  applying -them  appears  to  be  early  spring; 
when  they  should  be  spread  over  the  soil  in  a  state  of  coarse  powder, 
or  in  small  lumps  which  cohere  but  slightly;  because  the  vernal 
showers  will  then  wash  them  into  the  soil,  so  that  the  young  stems  of 
grass  may  easily  penetrate. 

"  The  application  of  top-dressing,  as  observed  by  Lord  Dundon- 
ald,  has  been  too  little  attended  to,  in  consequence  of  farmers  being 
unacquainted  with  the  advantages  resulting  to  the  ground,  when  con- 
verted from  pasture  to  arable,  by  previously  promoting  the  most  lux- 
uriant growth  of  perennial  grasses.  By  assisting  vegetation,  and  in- 
creasing the  vigour  of  perennial  plants,  their  roots  are  made  to  strike 
deeper  down,  and  improve  the  staple  of  the  soil:  with  annual  plants 
the  same  benefit  is  not  to  be  expected,  as  their  growth  and  decay  are 
limited  to  one  season ;  were  manures  exclusively  applied,  under  a 
system  of  convertible  husbandry,  to  grass  grounds,  the  lands  would 
regularly  be  broken  up,  in  due  rotation  of  cropping;  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  but  that  a  greater  quantity  of  corn  (grain)  and  herbage 
would  annually  be  produced;  and  it  is  very  probable  that  wljeat  and 
other  grain  would  be  less  subject  than  at  present  to  diseases,  many 
of  which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  are  occasioned  by  the  immediate 
application  of  dung  previously  to  sowing.  The  anicles  most  gene- 
ally  used  in  Scotland,  as  top-dressings,  are  lime  mixed  with  rich 
black  mould;  lime  mixed  with  peat,  peat-ashes,  coal-ashes,  and 
soot. 

As,  however,  the  proper  mode  of  collecting  and  preserving  ma- 
nures is  attended  with  considerable  expense,  the  most  economical 
manner  of  distributing  it,  requires  no  common  skill.  This  object  is 
in  a  great  measure  attained  by  the  drill-husbandry,  the  principal  ad- 
vantage of  which  consists  in  putting  the  manure  into  drills.  Mr. 
Parkinson  (in  his  Experienced  Farmer,  vol.  i  page  32)  directs  such 
driils  to  be  made  at  the  distance  of  two  feet  from  each  other:  thus, 
he  sows  wheat,  peas,  beans,  and  cabbages;  from  the  result  of 
which  this  intelligent  cultivator  maintains,  that  four  loads  per  acre 
in  the  drill-husbandry,  are  equal  to  sixteen  loads  in  the  usual  way  of 
spreading  it  over  the  whole  of  the  field. 


30 


2&4  ON  LIME. 


[jFROM  COOPER'S  DOMESTIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA,  J 


On  Lime. 


JLjTME,  a  white,  soft,  friable  substance,  prepared  of  marble,  chalk, 
or  other  caleareous  earth,  by  burning  them  in  a  kiln. 

The  common  form  in  which  lime-stone  is  found,  is  that  of  com- 
bination with  the  carbonic  acid  The  lime  is  obtained,  in  a  caustic 
state,  by  exposure  to  a  high  degree  of  heat,  whereby  the  carbonic 
acid  is  driven  off  in  the  state  of  gas,  or  air.  It  is  then  called  quick- 
lime, and  in  that  condition,  is  employed  in  husbandry  and  the  arts. 
After  having  been  deprived  of  its  fixed  air,  the  lime  is  constantly, 
though  slowly,  regaining  it  from  the  atmosphere,  and  all  other 
bodies  with  which  the  lime  comes  in  contact,  and  capable  of  furnish- 
ing it.  According  to  Mr.  Kirwan,  100  parts  of  quick-lime,  absorb 
about  28  of  water;  and  to  regain  its  full  proportion  of  air  from  the 
atmosphere,  it  requires  a  year  or  more,  if  not  purposely  spread  out. 

[A  ton  of  lime-stone  ought  to  be  reduced  in  the  kiln,  to  1 100  wt. : 
otherwise  it  is  not  sufficiently  burnt.  It  will  regain  two-thirds  of  the 
lost  weight  by  exposure  to  air  for  a  week  or  ten  days. — T.  C  ] 

Pure  lime-stone,  says  Dr.  Anderson,  when  fully  calcined  and 
slacked  is  reduced  to  a  fine  impalpable  powder  of  a  bright  white, 
that  feels  soft  between  the  fingers,  without  the  smallest  tendency  t© 
grittiness.  When  it  has  any  colour,  it  proceeds  from  iron,  or  other 
foriegn  matters  in  the  composition. 

The  chief  uses  of  lime  are, 

1.  ^\s  an  ingredient  in  mortar  to  cement  brick  or  stone  buildings y 
for  which  purpose,  being  divested  of  its  humidity,  and  its  pores  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  opened  by  the  action  of  the  fire,  it  is  so  eminent- 
ly calculated,  that  it  may  be  easily  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed 
with  sand  or  other  matters. 

2.  As  a  manure,  it  is  of  the  most  extensive  utility;  we  shall, 
therefore,  concisely  state  the  properties  of  the  best  lime-stone,  as 
well  as  the  proportionate  quantities  in  which  it  is  to  be  spread  on 
Ian  Is;  and  at  the  same  time  point  out  those  soils  that  are  really 
ameliorated,  and  likewise  such  as  receive  no  benefit  from  its  applica- 
tion. 

Formerly  an  opinion  generally  prevailed,  that  the  most  efficacious 
lime  for  manuring  lands,  was  produced  from  the  hardest  calcareous 
stones,  which  most  intimately  approached  the  nature  of  marble: 
modern  experience,  however,  has  amply  refuted  this  supposition. 
It  appears,  indeed,  that  there  are  two  sorts;  namely,  magnesian 
and  calcareous  lime-stone  $  the  latter  of  which  is  attended  with  the 


ON    LIME.  235 

most  beneficial  consequences,  while  the  former  is  highly  injurious  to 
land.  This  remarkable  fact  was  first  published  by  S,  Tennant,  t,sq. 
in  the  u  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society"  for 
1799;  who,  being  informed  of  the  opposite  nature  of  the  two  spe- 
cies, made  various  experiments,  in  which  their  respective  properties 
were  clearly  ascertained. 

[All  the  lime-stone  of  primitive  formation,  contains  magnesia: 
all  white  marbles,  contain  about  JO  percent,  of  magnesia.  Vlr. 
Tennant's  remark  applies  only  to  quantity :  he  is  mistaken  as  to 
quality.  You  must  put  less  of  the  magnesian  lime  on  your  land  by 
about  one-third,  than  of  common  lime. — T.  C] 

The  barren,  or  maymesian  lime,  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Eng- 
land, but  especially  in  the  county  of  Nottingham,  where  a  quarry 
of  it  is  worked  to  the  extent  of  thirty  or  forty  miles ;  alsd  in  the 
counties  of  Derby  and  Northumberland,  in  the  latter  of  which  it  is 
known  by  the  characteristic  name  of  hot,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
mild,  or  calcareous  lime,  that  abounds  in  all  parts  of  Britain.  We 
regret  that  we  cannot  enter  into  a  detail  respecting  Mr.  Tennant's 
important  discovery;  the  particulars  of  which  are  recorded  in  the 
volume  above  mentioned.  The  magnesian  lime  may  be  further  dis- 
tinguished from  that  made  of  pure  calcareous  stone,  by  its  slow  and 
difficult  solfition  in  acids 

When  burnt,  it  is  called  quick-lime,  and  should  be  spread  as  speed- 
ily as  possible,  immediately  before  the  plough  ;  so  that  the  greater 
part  may  be  slacked  in  the  soil.  The  proportion  used,  depends 
much  on  the  custom  of  the  country ;  but  should  more  properly  be 
adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  land.  In  the  county  of  York,  thirty- 
six  bushels  only  are  carted  on  an  acre ;  in  Wales,  a  quantity  some- 
what larger  ;  in  Ireland,  from  five  to  six  hundred  bushels  are  spread 
on  every  English  statute  acre  ;  and  in  various  parts  of  England,  very 
small  portions  are  injudiciously  scattered  :  for  it  is  the  opinion  of  the 
most  experienced  agriculturists,  that  three  or  four  hundred  bushels 
«it  the  least  (if  the  price  be  not  too  high)  should  be  allowed  to  each 
acre  .*  especially  when  the  soil  has  long  been  in  an  uncultivated  state. 
One  good  liming  is,  in  such  cases,  decidedly  preferable  to  small 
quantities  frequently  repeated. 

[It  depends  on  the  kind  of  soil :  stiff  clays  require  the  greatest 
quantity. — T.  C  ] 

In  common  situations,  however,  where  the  land  does  not  abound 
in  putrescible  matters,  and  is  not  vitiated  by  acids,  Mr  Young  is  of 
opinion,  that  1 60  bushels  per  acre,  will  produce  a  considerable  ef- 
fect:  but,  on  stiff  strong  clays,  he  thinks  at  least  double,  or  triple, 
that  quantity  ought  to  be  allowed. 

If  lime  be  applied  without  any  other  manure,  it  is  said  to  exhaust 
the  most  fertile  particles  of  the  soil.  Some  agriculturists,  therefore, 
suggest  the  propriety  of  forming  small  heaps,  and  covering  them 
with  earth  :  as  soon  as  the  soil  has,  by  its  moisture,  slacked  the  lime, 
the  heaps  are  to  be  opened,  and  as  much  dung  buried  in  each  as  the 
earth  will  cover.  A  more  economical  and  judicious  method,  is  that 
stated  by  Mr.  Andrews,  in  the  4th  volume  of  Annals  of  Agricul- 
ture.    He  directs  about  140  loads,  (each  containing  40  bushels,)  of 


236  ©N  LIME. 

moist  dung  to  be  heaped  up  in  the  month  of  December,  when  2GG 
bushels  of  lime  are  to  be  well  incorporated.  The  whole  is  then  suf- 
fered to  lie  for  three  months,  after  which  the  heap  is  to  be  well  stirr- 
ed; when  the  harvest  is  completed,  the  compost  is  to  be  spread  on 
a  pea  stubble,  and  ploughed  in  for  barley  ;  but,  if  the  season  should 
not  favour  the  purpose,  he  directs  these  labours  to  he  performed  after 
the  firsi  frost  that  occurs.  Mr  Andrews  farther  observes  that,  in 
consequence  of  such  management,  his  barley-crops  have,  upon  an 
average  of  twelve  years,  amounted  annually  to  four  quarters  and  six 
bushels  per  acre. 

The  advantages  arising  from  this  treatment  are,  1.  The  total  des- 
trucnon  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  so  that  the  land  on  which  this  mix- 
ture hrid  been  spread,  was  uniformly  the  clearest :  and,  2.  The  in- 
creased fermentation  of  the  dung,  by  which  its  fertilizing  properties 
are  snore  speedily  excited.  Lastly,  the  expense  of  the  lime  was  to 
him  106.  per  acre  :  and  its  beneficial  effects  continued  for  four  years. 

The  soils  peculiarly  susceptible  of  improvement,  by  means  of  lime, 
are: 

1.  Rich  black  or  brown  friable  crumbling  loams,  which  abound 
with  vegetable  matter ;  its  general  putrescency  being  accelerated  by 
the  lime,  such  land  is  so  greatly  ameliorated  as  to  yield  crops,  which 
they  could  never  have  produced  by  the  application  of  any  other 
manure. 

2.  On  low,  rich,  drained  meadows,  that  have  formerly  been  bogs, 
and  the  black  soil  of  which  abounds  with  vegetable  fibres. 

3.  On  old  sheep-walks,  heaths,  and  commons,  which  have  been 
under  grass  for  time  immemorial,  and  are  first  to  be  converted  into 
arable  lands  ;  but  lime  will  not  be  of  any  advantage,  after  they  have 
been  cultivated  for  several  years.  And,  though  such  manure  will 
produce  favorable  effects  upon  old  lay  soils,  abounding  in  vegetable 
particles,  yet  when  the  latter  are  putrified  by  liming,  and  exhausted 
by  repeated  cropping,  it  will  be  of  no  service. 

4.  On  moory,  boggy,  mountainous  land ;  according  to  Dr.  Hun- 
ter, on  black  peat-earth.  In  his  opinion,  lime  prevents  the  sponta- 
neous 'growth  of  heath,  produces  a  new  family  of  vegetables, 
especially  white  clover.  He  farther  remarks,  that  the  greatest  im- 
provements ever  made  on  moors,  in  any  country,  have  probably 
been  effected  by  means  of  lime.  There  prevails,  however,  a  diver- 
sity of  opinion  on  this  subject,  which  we  are  unable  to  reconcile. 
In  the  16th  vol.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for  Encourage- 
ment of  Arts,  &c.  Thomas  Davis,  Esq.  (steward  to  the  Marquis 
of  Bath,)  states  that  though  lime  is  the  only  proper  manure  for  such 
soil,  which  is  thus  qualified  to  produce  crops  of  corn  for  the  first 
three  or  four  years,  after  converting  it  into  arable  or  meadow  land; 
yet  this  manure  loses  its  amoliorating  properties  in  the  course  of  ten 
years  (during  which  time  the  vegetable  roots,  according  to  Dundon- 
ald's  Theory,  might  be  supposed  to  have  been  dissolved:)  and  he 
never  found  a  second  liming  to  be  productive  of  any  beneficial  effect. 

§.  On  all  other  waste  soils  that  have  been  over-run  for  ages  with 
furze,  heath,  broom,  fern,  bushes,  cr  wood;    and   which,    though 


ON  LIME.  237 

richly  stored  with  vegetable  food,  have  contracted  an  acidity,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  long  rest,  and  the  spontaneous  growth  of  roots. 

On  the  contrary,  lime  is  of  little  service  on  poor,  light  and  thin 
soils;  or  such  as  are  on  a  quarry  of  lime  or  other  stone,  especially 
after  they  have  borne  crops  for  a  considerable  number  of  years. 
Nor  is  it  productive  of  any  advantage  on  strong,  stony  land;  or  wet, 
cold  loams,  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  drained;  or  similar 
clays  that  are  tenacious  of  moisture;  but  Mr.  Arthur  Young  is  of 
opinion,  that  large  quantities  of  well-drained  lime,  laid  on  very  stiff 
clay,  would  be  attended  with  a  favourable  effect ;  though  he  candid- 
ly adds,  that  it  never  has- been  tried  to  his  satisfaction. 

[Oyster-shells  are  frequently  burnt  into  lime,  to  lay  on  land. 
They  are  a  better  manure  when  ground  without  burning,  owing  to 
the  remains  of  animal  matter  in  them.  A  good  lime  compost  is  the 
following:  spread  on  any  platform  undercover,  6  inches  of  mould, 
then  3  inches  of  well  burnt  lime,  slack  it  with  water  in  which  com- 
mon salt  is  dissolved,  to  the  amount  of  l£  lbs.  of  salt  to  each  bushel 
pf  lime  :  cover  it  with  6  inches  more  of  mould.  Before  laying  it  on 
the  land,  turn  and  mix  this  compost  heap,  and  lay  three  hundred 
bushels  of  it  on  each  acre. — T.   C.] 

Quick-lime  is  also  of  great  utility  in  rending  rocks  and  stones? 
when  mixed  with  gunpowder,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  the 
former,  well  dried  and  pulverised,  to  two  pounds  of  the  latter. 
This  singular  property  of  lime  was  discovered,  and  is  related,  by  H. 
D.  Griffith,  Esq.  in  the  8th  vol.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Bath 
and  West  of  England  Society  ;  where  he  states,  that  the  mixture 
above  specified,  caused  an  explosion  with  a  force  equal  to  three 
pounds  of  gunpowder :  hence  in  those  operations,  one-third  of  the 
expense  may  be  saved. 

It  has  been  said  in  a  late  French  publication,  that  the  mixture  of 
salt  with  lime  for  white-washing,  is  an  Egyptian  practice ;  and  that 
experiments  were  made  at  the  Prytaneum  in  Paris,  to  prove  the  ad- 
vantages derived  from  it.  The  philosophers  who  accompanied 
Buonaparte  to  Egypt,  were  more  observant  than  those  who  visited 
the  United  States  during  the  American  war;  otherwise,  the  know- 
ledge of  the  effect  of  mixing  salt  with  lime-wash,  in  rendering  walls 
on  which  it  is  put,  smooth  and  glossy,  which  is  familiar  to  every  no- 
table housewife  in  the  United  States  would  not  have  been  concealed^ 
until  last  year,  from  the  European  world. 

Lime-water  was  formerly  and  deservedly  in  great  repute  as  a  sol- 
vent of  the  stone,  and  a  remedy  in  scrophulous  affections ;  [and  to 
the  amount  of  a  pint  a  day,  taken  at  thrice,  in  dyspepsia.  T.  C] 
It  has  likewise  been  used  both  externally  and  internally  for  cutaneous 
eruptions  ;  though  we  by  no  means  approve  of  its  indiscriminate  use, 
which  may  be  attended  with  dangerous  effects  On  account  of  its 
astringent  properties,  this  preparation  has  also  been  successfully  pre- 
scribed in  cases  of  diabetes,  or  immoderate  flow  of  urine ;  and  other 
disorders  proceeding  from  the  laxity  or  weakness  of  the  solids.  At 
present,  it  is  chiefly  used  for  washing  foul  or  ill-conditioned  ulcers. 

The  theory  of  the  action  of  lime  upon  soils,  is  by  no  means  set- 
tled ;  [it  appears  to  be  only  a  manure  of  stimulousj  not  a  pabulum, 
T.  C.J 


238  QN    SOIL. 


* 


[EXTRACT  FROM  AN*  ADDRESS  OF  THE  HON.  TIMOTHY  PICKERING;  TO  THE  MASSA- 
CHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY.] 


On  Soil. 


Tf 


HE  first  object  which  claims  the  farmer's  attention,  is  the  na- 
ture or  ronstitution  of  the  soil.  The  next  embraces  the  means  of 
enriching  it  and  preserving  its  fertility.  That  intimate  mixture  of 
clay  and  sand  which  is  called  loam,  is  the  most  desirable  soil,  as  be- 
ing already  prepared  for  every  operation  in  agriculture.  A  stiff  clay 
demands  opening  by  the  addition  of  sand  and  other  materials ;  and  a 
sandy  soil  requires  the  addition  of  clay.  But  calcareous  earth  is 
considered  as  essential  to  give  to  soils  the  capacity  of  attaining  the 
highest  degree  of  fertility.  Few  soils,  indeed,  are  wholly  destitute 
of  calcareous  matter,  though  it  may  be  invisible  to  the  eye :  but  very 
few  possess  so  large  a  portion  of  it  as  would  be  salutary.  There  can 
be  little  danger,  therefore,  of  applying  it  to  excess  in  Massachusetts, 
where  so  little  in  any  form  has  been  found.  Lime-stone  is  the 
great  source  of  calcareous  matter.  But  this  is  of  various  qualities. 
Very  little  of  it  is  purely  calcareous.  Some  lime-stones  in  Great- 
Britain  have  been  found  to  contain  eleven  parts  in  twelve  of  sand. 
Of  such  lime,  if  sixty  bushels  were  spread  over  an  acre  of  ground, 
five  bushels  only  of  calcereous  matter  would  be  applied.  To  know 
then  the  constitution  of  the  lime  he  uses,  is  important  to  the  farmer; 
and  not  less  to  the  mason  in  preparing  his  mortar,  which  will  require 
the  addition  of  more  or  less  sand,  according  to  the  composition  of 
the  lime.  All  marles  contain  calcareous  matter,  and  are  of  greater 
or  less  value,  according  to  the  proportion  which  this  bears  to  the 
clay,  sand,  or  other  substances  mingled  with  it.  All  shell  fish  will 
supply  this  material.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  remote 
from  lime-stone,  oyster-shells  are  burnt  to  obtain  lime  for  building  • 
and  in  all  seaport  towns  where  many  oysters  are  used  for  food,  their 
shells  will  be  found  in  quantities  deserving  the  neighbouring  farmer's 
attention  ;  and  if  raised  in  piles,  mingled  with  wood,  may  be  burnt  to 
lime.  Of  the  vast  improvements  of  the  lands  in  Scotland,  within 
the  last  forty  or  fifty  years,  lime  has  been  the  basis:  and  the  use  of 
it  the  first  step  towards  rendering  the  application  of  manures,  strict- 


0N  SOIL.  239 

ly  so  called,  highly  productive.  There  they  will  lay  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred  or  more  bushels  on  an  acre.  In  Pennsylvania,  where 
lime  has  been  long  and  extensively  used  twenty  to  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre  has  been  found  sufficient,  and  safer  than  any  larger  quantity,  at 
least  in  the  first  application.  A  remarkable  instance  of  the  benefi- 
cial use  of  lime,  though  only  at  the  rate  of  twenty  bushels  to  the 
acre,  well  merits  a  recital.  The  experiment  was  made  on  a  field  of 
ten  acres,  for  which  the  farmer  had  provided  two  hundred  bushels  5 
but  it  being  his  first  essay  in  using  lime,  it  so  happened  that  the 
whole  quantity  was  disposed  of  when  he  had  gone  over  nine  acres. 
Indian  corn  was  planted  ;  and  the  crop  was  very  great.  The 
next  year,  the  field  was  fallowed,  and  at  seed  time  sown,  a  part 
with  wheat  and  a  part  with  rye;  and  good  crops  were  produced. 
"  In  the  Spring  (says  the  farmer)  I  sowed  it  with  clover  and  timothy 
(Herdsgrass)  and  put  two  bushels  of  plaster  on  an  acre ;  and  had  as 
great  a  crop  of  clover  as  could  grow :  it  lay  three  weeks  before  the  time 
of  mowing."  He  adds — "  The  lime  and  plaster  did  all  this  :  for  no 
land  could  be  poorer  before.  .Where  I  laid  no  lime  I  got  no  clover, 
although  I  put  on  the  plaster."*  The  kind  of  soil  in  which  lime 
operated  so  powerfully,  is  not  mentioned  :  but  probably  it  was  clay- 
ey; a  very  common  soil  in  the  country  where  this  land  lay.  An- 
other like  instance  occurred  in  the  Delaware  state,  on  a  clay  farm, 
on  which  plaster  produced  no  effect  until  the  land  was  limed.f 
While  lime  operates  very  beneficially  on  strong  clays,  it  is  said  to  be 
still  more  useful  on  lighter  soils.  To  ascertain  its  effects  on  any 
lands,  will  require  but  little  time  and  a  small  expense.  A  single 
cask  of  lime  will  be  sufficient  for  a  number  of  comparative  experi- 
ments If  a  few  adjoining  rods  of  land  be  set  apart  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  lime,  by  slacking,  brought  to  a  fine  powder,  it  may  be  even- 
ly spread  on  the  several  small  strips,  in  different  proportions, '  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  and  any  greater  number  of  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Then,  by  raking,  or  harrowing,  mix  the  lime  with  the  surface  soil, 
and  plant  each  strip  equally  and  uniformly  with  Indian  corn.  One 
equal  strip,  tilled  and  planted  exactly  as  the  others,  but  left  unlimed, 
will  enable  the  experimenter  to  see  what  advantage  may  arise  from 
liming.  In  the  next  year  the  effects  of  lime  in  its  respective  propor- 
tions may  be  mrther  tested,  by  sowing  the  same  strips  with  equal 
quantities  of  one  sort  of  grain  and  of  grass  seeds. 

In  like  manner,  small  experiments  may  be  made  to  try  the  effects 
of  clay  on  light  sandy  or  gravely  loams,  and  of  sand  on  stiff  clays. 
The  clay  should  be  carried  on  and  spread,  and  lie  on  the  surface  dur- 
ing the  winter,  to  break  and  moulder  by  the  alternate  frosts  and 
thaws,  that  it  may  be  more  effectually  mixed  with  the  soil. 

As  to  the  manner  of  applying  lime,  I  am  satisfied  the  best  is  that 
recommended  and  practised  where  lime  has  been  most  extensively  used; 
that  is,  to  slake  it  with  water,  and  as  soon  as  it  falls  to  a  fine  powder 
and  is  cool,  to  spread  it  evenly  over  the  land,  and  with  the  harrow 
mix  it  with  the  soil  :  its  greatest  utility  depending  on  its  intimate  in* 

*  Memoirs  of  the  Philadelphia  Society  of  Agriculture,  Vol,I7  page  193 
$  Ibib,  Vol  U,  page  1.87, 


240  ON  SOIL. 

corporation.  In  liming  extensively,  the  lime  is  often,  perhaps  most 
commonly,  carried  on  and  dropped  in  small  heaps  to  be  slaked  by  the 
moisture  of  the  air :  but  it  should  be  carefully  attended  to,  that  it 
may  be  spread  as  soon  as  it  is  slaked;  or  there  will  otherwise  be 
danger  of  its  settling  in  lumps,  which  may  never  again  be  duly  pul- 
verised. 

If  the  application  of  lime  be,  as  is  represented,  so  important  to 
the  great  and  permanent  fertility  of  the  soil,  (and  of  this  I  entertain 
no  doubt,)  while  the  knowledge  of  the  fact  is  all  that  is  essential  for 
the  practical  farmer  to  know;  something  more  is  desirable  to  satisfy 
inquisitive  minds ;  and  if  the  reason  for  using  lime,  or  its  mode  of 
operating,  cbuld  be  shown,  it  would  give  confidence  to  the  husband- 
man, while  it  gratified  the  philosophical  inquirer. 

-A  gentleman  who  is  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  chemists  of 
the'age  (Sir  Humphrey  Davy)  informs  us  that  "  when  lime,  whether 
freshly  burnt  or  slacked,  is  mixed  with  any  moist  fibrous  matter, 
there  is  a  strong  action  between  the  lime  and  the  vegetable  matter, 
and  they  form  a  kind  of  compost  together,  of  which,  a  part  is  solu- 
ble in  water  :" — that  "by  this  kind  of  operation,  lime  renders  mat- 
ter which  was  before  comparatively  inert,  nutritive ;  and  as  charcoal 
and  oxygene  (vital  air)  abound  in  all  vegetable  matters,  it  (the  quick- 
lime) becomes  at  the  same  time  carbonate  of  lime,"  that  is,  it  is  re- 
stored, by  again  combining  with  carbonic  acid  or  fixed  air,  to  the 
state  in  which  it  existed  before  it  was  burnt,  except  its  being  reduced 
to  powder.  Again  he  says — "  Mild  lime,  powdered  lime-stone, 
marles,  or  chalks  (for  chalk  is  a  lime-stone)  have  no  action  of  this 
kind  upon  vegetable  matter;  by  their  action  they  prevent  the  too 
rapid  decomposition  of  substances  already  dissolved  ;  but  they  have 
no  tendency  to  form  soluble  matters."  He  then  remarks,  that 
"chalk,  marie,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  will  only  improve  the  texture 
of  the  soil;  or  its  relation  to  absorption;  acting  merely  as  one  of  its 
earthy  ingedients.  Quick-lime  when  it  becomes  mild,  operates  in 
the  same  manner  as  chalk;  but  in  the  act  of  becoming  mild,  it  pre- 
pares soluble  out  of  insoluble  matter."  Again  he  says — "All  soils 
are  improved  by  mild  lime,  and  sands  more  than  clays. 

While  quick-lime,  according  to  this  celebrated  chemist,  is  so  use- 
fully applied  to  land  abounding  in  fibrous  matter,  to  effect  its  speedy 
dissolution,  he  says  its  application  should  be  avoided,  where  a  soil 
contains  much  soluble  vegetable  manure ;  as  it  either  tends  to  decom- 
pose the  soluble  matters  by  uniting  to  their  carbon  and  oxygene,  so 
as  to  become  mild  lime,  or  it  combines  with  the  soluble  matters,  and 
forms  compounds  having  less  attraction  for  water  than  the  pure  vege- 
table substance. 

But  an  ingenious  writer,  under  the  signature  of  Agricola,  in  Nova- 
Scotia,  says,  that  notwithstanding  all  these  precautionary  fears,  the 
offsprings  of  chemical  creation,  the  British  farmer  is  mostly  in  a  ha- 
bit of  applying  quick-lime  to  all  sorts  of  soils.  And  he  assigns  an 
adequate  reason,  that  caustic  lime  cannot  remain  any  length  of  time 
in  the  ground,  without  passing  into  a  carbonate  and  becoming  mild. 
This  writer  offers  different  reasons  for  the  beneficial  operation  of 
lime ;  that  it  is  capable  of  absorbing  not  only  that  quantity  of  carbo- 


dN  soil.  241 

mc  acid  which  it  possessed  in  its  natural  state  (being  45  parts  in  100) 
but  an  additional  quantity;  and  can  form  what  chemists  call  hyper- 
carbonate.  This,  he  says,  is  highly  soluble  in  water:  which  ac- 
counts for  the  admission  of  lime  into  the  structure  of  plants;  and 
that  this  excess  of  carbonic  acid  adheres  very  loosely  to  its  base  (the 
mild  lime)  and  is  liberated  without  any  extraordinary  degree  of  heat. 
The  carbonic  acid,  a  most  important  article  of  vegetable  food,  is 
copiously  evolved  in  the  putrefactive  process  of  manures;  the  calca- 
reous earth  fixes  and  prevents  its  escape — forms  with  it  a  hypercar- 
bonate,  and  readily  imparts  it,  in  union  with  water,  towards  the 
nourishment  of  the  crops.  It  is  supposed  to  do  more;  it  unites  with 
the  carbonic  acid  floating  in  the  air ;  and  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
aliment  in  the  soil,  it  seizes  and  secures  this  food  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  afterwards  disperses  it,  according  to  the  calls  and  necessities  of 
vegetation.  Hence  the  necessities  of  keeping  lime  on  the  surface. 
It  is  then  ready  to  intercept,  and  combine,  with  the  carbonic  acid 
which  is  generated  by  the  fermentation  of  the  putrescent  matter  lying 
at  lower  depths,  and  to  attract  the  same  gas  (the  carbonic  acid)  from 
the  sourrounding  air. 

I  confess  myself  much  better  satisfied  with  the  observations  of 
Agricola,  in  accounting  for  the  operations  of  lime,  than  with  the  so- 
lution offered  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy.  If  the  statement  of  the 
former  be  correct,  we  can  see  a  reason  for  the  long  continuance  of 
the  beneficial  effects  of  lime  on  land ;  for  although  it  is  not  itself 
food  for  plants,  it  is  constantly  employed  in  collecting  and  imparting 
to  them  that  food,  from  the  sources  which  have  been  mentioned. 
Does  not  the  reasoning  of  Agricola  also  indicate  the  cause  why  lime 
benefits  sands  more  than  clays  ?  The  latter  are  opened  and  render- 
ed lighter  by  its  application :  and  to  destroy  their  too  great  tenacity, 
seems  to  be  a  main  advantage  gained  by  liming  clay  soils  5  whereas 
sandy  soils  are  already  sufficiently  porous.  t 


31 


$%2r  ON  CORK. 


£from  cooper's  domestic  encyclopedia.'} 


On  Corn. 


Cc 


^/ORN  Indian.  Zea  Maize.  In  the  United  States,  two  kinds  of 
Indian  corn,  or  maize,  are  commonly  cultivated.  The  gourd  seed- 
eorn.  (so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  gourd  seed)  and  the  yel- 
low corn :  the  seed  of  which  is  plump  and  round.  The  former  kind 
is  generally  raised  in  the  states  of  North  and  bouth-Carolina,  and 
Georgia ;  and  the  latter,  in  the  more  northern  states.  In  some  of 
the  states,  a  white  plump  grain  is  also  raised  for  the  common  and  ex- 
cellent dish  homany.  The  late  Mr.  Bartram  informed  Dr.  Mease, 
that  he  saw  in  the  Creek  nation  of  Indians,  a  small  corn  in  general 
use,  which  consisted  almost  entirely  of  flour,  and  was  easily  pul- 
verised ;  he  thinks  the  most  pleasant  corn  cakes  he  ever  ate,  were 
made  of  this  kind  of  corn.  The  agent  of  the  general  government 
with  the  Creeks  would  render  service  to  the  state,  by  circulating  this 
corn  in  different  parts  of  the  union. 

Corn  in  England  is  the  general  term,  for  all  kinds  of  grain,  but  in 
the  United  States,  by  corn,  is  always  meant,  Indian  corn,  (  Zea 
Maize,)  and  to  this,  it  is  proposed  to  confine  the  present  additional 
observations. 

In  the  United  States,  the  greater  part  of  a  field  of  corn,  in  some 
seasons,  is  destroyed  by  birds,  and  ground  squirrels.  To  prevent 
this  loss,  Mr.  James  Graham,  of  New- York,  says,  (Trans.  Argri. 
So.  New-York)  he  finds  no  plan  so  successful,  as  that  of  tarring  the 
seed,  in  the  following  manner.  Put  as  much  corn  as  you  expect  to 
plant  the  next  day,  into  warm  water  in  the  evening;  the  ensuing 
morning  drain  off  the  water;  then  pour  on  as  much  hot  water  as  will 
cover  it,  and  immediately  after,  throw  in  tar,  at  the  rate  of  about 
one  pint  to  a  bushel,  stir  the  tar  through  the  corn,  until  the  grains 
appear  to  be  uniformly  coated  with  the  tar,  then  put  it  into  a  basket 
to  drain:  after  the  water  has  ran  off,  throw  it  into  a  large  tub  or 
trough,  and  stir  among  it  as  much  ashes,  lime,  (slacked)  or  gypsum, 
(plaister  of  Paris)  as  will  adhere  to  the  grain ;  by  which  means  they 
will  easily  separate  from  each  other,  and  may  be  as  conveniently 
planted,  as  if  they  had  never  been  tarred.    Mr.  Graham  prefers 


ON    CORN.  &43 

gypsum,  to  either  lime  or  ashes,  as  it  will  not  be  so  likely  to  injure 
the  finders  in  planting,  and  does  also,  in  equally  small  quantities, 
more  powerfully  promote  vegetation. 

The  precaution  of  soaking  the  corn  before  applying  the  tar,  is 
highly  necessary,  as  the  coat  of  tar  and  gypsum  would  otherwise, 
(especially  in  dry  seasons)  prevent  it  from  absorbing  moisture  suffi- 
cient to  produce  vegetation 

It  is  important  too,  in  all  cases  where  corn  has  been  ^soaked,  to 
plant  it  immediately  after  the  plough,  when  running  the  cross  furrows* 

Mr.  G.  has  experienced  the  good  effects  of  thus  preparing  seed- 
corn,  principally  in  preventing  the  ravages  of  crows  and  black  birds, 
the  most  common  enemies  of  our  spring  crops,  but  has  no  doubt  that 
it  will  be  found  equally  beneficial  in  preserving  them  from  others, 
such  as  ground  squirrels,  &c, 

Birds  are,  however,  not  the  only  enemies  to  corn  which  the  far- 
mer has  to  contend  with.  M.  Peters  observes,  that  the  cut-worms, 
or  grubs,  destroy  many  of  the  young  shoots  above  ground.  A  de- 
coction of  hellebore,  mixed  with  sulphur,  soot,  and  a  little  nitre  (salt- 
petre) is  equally  offensive  to  vermin  :  and  if  the  seed,  after  being  soak- 
ed in  this  mixture,  is  encrusted  with  plaister,  it  remarkably  forwards 
the  growth, 

Replanting  of  corn,  according  to  Mr.  Peters,  seldom  answers  well. 
Transplanting  of  plants  raised  in  the  gardens,  or  in  any  clear  and  rich 
corner  of  the  field,  is  much  more  eligible.  This  is  easily  managed, 
by  sowing  in  drills,  a  small  quantity  of  corn,  at  the  time  of  planting 
the  field.  If  the  plants  are  not  wanted,  the  loss  or  trouble  is  inconsi- 
derable. Plants  may  also  be  had  from  hills  in  which  too  many  seeds 
have  been  dropped.  It  is  too  common  to  have  more  plants  in  a  hill 
than  are  profitable.  Three  at  most  are  sufficient.  Although  the 
places  where  the  corn  is  dropped  are  called  hills,  the  old  practice  of 
hilling  is  for  the  most  part,  abandoned.  The  necessary  use  of  the 
hoe  is  not  admitted,  but  the  plough  is  chiefly  used  to  earth  and  tend 
the  corn.  Great  attention  to  destroy  the  suckers,  which  draw  off  the 
supplies,  both  from  plants  and  ears. 

After  several  experiments,  in  order  to  find  the  most  advantageous 
method  of  planting  corn,  Mr.  Spurier,  of  Delaware,  found  the  follow- 
ing exceeded  all  others. 

He  prepared  his  land,  by  ploughing  it  in  autumn,  in  single 
boughts ;  in  the  spring  he  harrowed  it  down  as  smooth  as  possible, 
and  ploughed  it;  then  harrowed  it  again,  and  marked  out  the  fur- 
rows at  eight  feet  distance:  in  these  furrows  he  dropped  the  seed  sin- 
gle, at  about  the  distance  of  every  foot ;  his  cart  loaded  with  manure 
from  the  compost  heap,  followed  in  the  alley  between,  and  covered 
the  seed  in  the  furrows,  about  three  or  four  inches  thick,  with  the 
manure.  This  was  done  almost  as  expeditiously  as  in  the  commoa 
way,  covering  it  with  mould  by  the  hoe. 

.  By  this  method,  the  plants  came  soon  up,  and  flourished  very  vigo- 
rously. When  the  plants  were  about  six  inches  high  he  ploughed  be- 
tween, taking  the  mould  from  the  plants,  throwing  it  up  in  a  ridge  in 
ihe  t middle  of  the  alley,  and  with  a  hand  hoe,  cut  up  the  weeds  and 


244  ON   CORN. 

supeifluous  plants.  If  they  are  left  at  two  feet  distance  in  the  rowsr 
thev  will  be  thick  enough. 

The  next  ploughing,  he  took  the  mould  from  the  middle,  throw- 
ing it  up  to  the  plants.  Every  time  of  ploughing,  he  used  the  hand 
hoe  to  stir  the  ground  between  the  plants,  and  to  destroy  the  weeds. 
The  third  ploughing  he  did  as  the  first,  throwing  up  the  mould  in  the 
middle  of  the  alley.  This  is  of  more  use  than  a  person  would 
imagine,  for  it  admits  the  influences  of  the  air  and  dews  to  penetrate 
to  the  roots. 

The  fourth  ploughing,  which  was  the  last,  he  managed  as  the 
second,  by  throwing  up  the  mould  to  the  stalks  of  corn.  If  this  last 
ploughing  could  be  so  contrived,  as  to  be  done  early  in  the  morning, 
before  the  sun  has  exhaled  the  dew,  it  would  bring  those  riches  in 
the  ground,  which  would  afford  a  double  nourishment.  The  land, 
upon  which  Mr.  Spurrier  tried  this  experiment,  was  between  a  loam 
and  a  clay.        ' 

Sands  and  light  lands  will  not  require  so  many  ploughings. 

A  gentleman  of  Philadelphia  county  had  his  seed-corn  soaked  in 
the  black  water  of  a  dung  heap,  and  in  which  some  salt-petre  was  dis- 
solved :  when  planting,  he  added  a  small  handful  of  gypsum  to  each 
hill,  when  up  he  put  on  a  little  more,  and  when  the  ears  were  about 
to  set,  a  small  quantity  wa^  again  added.  His  crop  was  very  abun- 
dant, as  we  witnessed ;  and  was  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  field 
had  been  worn  out  by  bad  management.  In  rich  ground,  however, 
the  application  of  all  these  strong  stimulants  to  the  grain  may  prove 
injurious, -by  causing  too  great  a  growth  of  the  stalk.  The  second 
application  of  the  gypsum  may  in  such  cases  be  omitted. 

Indian  corn  is  commonly  planted  in  the  beginning  of  May,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, but  if  the  ground  be  rich,  and  gypsum  used  as  a  manure, 
and  the  season  should  prove  favourable,  the  stalk  will  grow  so  tall  by 
harvest,  and  the  roots  so  numerous,  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  plough 
among  them.  A  dded  to  this,  the  farmer  will  not  have  time  to  attend 
to  the  corn,  and  as  the  season  at  harvest  is  commonly  dry,  it  may 
suffer  from  neglect:  a  judicious  farmer,  therefore,  of  Philadelphia 
county,  plants  his  corn  the  end  of  May,  and  thus  is  enabled  to  give 
it  the  last  ploughing  after  harvest.  He  also  soaks  and  rolls  the  corn  in 
slacked  lime.,  to  prevent  the  birds  picking  the  grains;  and  finds  the 
practice  successful.  Mr.  Peters  approves  highly  of  this  practice  of 
ploughing  after  harvest,  if  it  be  done  when  the  weather  is  moist. 
In  a  drought,  it  is  rather  dangerous.  He  adds, "  It  requires  a  good 
tilth  to  keep  down  weeds.  Nothing  requires  more  clean  farming, 
than  corn,  which  is  seldom  ploughed  often  enough. 

A  plain  farmer  informed  the  editor,  that  he  made  the  following  ex- 
periments on  the  comparative  effects  of  different  manures  for  corn. 

He  manured  different  parts  of  the  same  field  of  corn,  with  dung  of 
cows,  horses  and  hogs  :  and  the  ashes  of  blackberry  bushes  and  other 
briers  cut  down  from  the  fence  side :  the  ground  manured  with  the 
ashes  produced  an  earlier  and  better  crop,  than  any  other  part  of 
the  ground  The  hog-dung  produced  the  next  best  crop.  He  put 
two  shovels  full  of  the  ashes  to  each  hill  of  corn.     These  facts, 


ON  CORN.  245 

which  are  the  result  of  a  laudable  wish  in  a  plain  farmer  to  ascertain 
an  important  point,  deserve  attention. 

The  following  account  of  two  crops  of  corn,  deserves  to  be  uni- 
versally known,  as  an  incitement  to  the  spirit  of  emulation  and  in- 
dustry among  farmers. 

Mr.  John  Stevens,  of  Hoboken,  New-Jersey,  and  Mr.  D.  Ludlow, 
Westchester,  betted  55  guineas  upon  the  superiority  of  their  crops 
of  corn.  Mr.  Stevens  ploughed  his  ground  three  times  before  plant- 
ing, and  before  the  last  ploughing,  put  on  700  horse  cart  loads  of 
street  manure ;  he  planted  in  double  rows  at  5 £  feet  asunder,  and 
dibbled  each  grain.  To  do  this  with  expedition  and  acuracy,  he 
bored  two  rows  of  holes  in  a  peice  of  board  four  feet  long,  so  as  to 
form  equilateral  triangles,  the  sides  of  which  were  seven  inches, 
thus; 


Into  these  holes  he  drove  pegs,  about  3£  inches  long.  As  the 
corn  was  dropped  into  these  holes,  made  with  this  machine,  a  man 
followed  with  a  basket  of  rotten  dung  with  which  he  filled  them  up. 
Then  came  on  the  carts,  out  of  which  the  rows  were  sprinkled  with 
a  coat  of  street  manure.  During  the  season  the  crop  was  suckered 
three  times.  The  intervals  were  repeatedly  ploughed,  and  the  rows 
kept  perfectly  clean  of  weeds  by  hoeing  and  hand  weeding.  The 
produce  of  the  crop  was  as  follows  : — 233  2-thirds  measure  full  of 
corn  in  the  ear.  A  measure  full  contained  one  bushel  and  a  half  and 
one  pint  of  shelled  corn;  233  2-thirds  give  consequently  354  bush- 
els and  6  quarts,  or  118  bushels  and  2  quarts  per  acre.  Mr.  Stevens 
is  confident,  that  he  would  have  had  considerably  more  corn,  had  not 
his  crop  suffered  very  greatly  by  a  thunder  storm,  which  laid  the 
greater  part  of  it  down  at  the  time  the  ears  were  setting.       ' 

Mr.  Ludlow  planted  in  continued  rows,  four  feet  asunder,  and 
eight  inches  from  stalk  to  stalk  in  the  rows,  and  manured  with  200 
horse-cartload  of  street  dirt.     His  crop  was  as  follows  : 

Total,  182  measures  of  corn  in  the  ear.  Shelled  corn  in  full  mea- 
sure, one  bushel  and  a  half  and  four  quarts,  which  in  182  give  295 
bushels  and  12  quarts,  or  98  bushels  and  14  quarts  per  acre. 

These  are  truly  noble  crops,  and  do  honour  to  the  industry  and 
agricultural  skill  of  the  cultivators. 

A  friend  says,  in  New-Jersey,  it  has  been  found,  that  corn  plant- 
ed after  clover  cut  in  May,  and  the  stubble  ploughed  yields  an  abun- 
dant crop.  There  can  be  no  reason  why  the  same  good  effect  ought 
not  to  follow  a  clover  lay  for  corn,  as  for  wheat,  the  experience  of 
which  is  so  familiar  to  us,  in  Pennsylvania. 

Mr  Bordley  directs  to  cut  up  the  corn  stalks  close  to  the  ground, 
near  the  end  of  September,  with  sharp  hoes,  having  first  stripped 
the  blades  and  cut  off  the  tops,  but  always  leaving  the  ears  on:  and 
to  pile  the  stalks  and  corn  in  a  pyramidal  form  in  small  parcels,  to 
cure.  A  friend  found  some  years  since,  that  by  thus  exposing  his 
corn  to  the  frost,  it  ripened  better  than  if  permitted  to  remain  stand- 
ing in  the  field,  as  is  commonly  practised. 


246  OS    CORN. 

Darwin  also  says,  that  the  frosty  nights  of  autumn  in  Scotland, 
contribute  to  ripen  the  late  crops  of  that  cold  climate  :  he  supposes 
the  frost  converts  the  mucilage  of  the  grain  sooner  into  starch. 

Mr.  Bordley  makes  the  following  excellent  remarks :  Observing 
much  irregularity  in  the  standing  maize  in  the  rows,  I  caused  the 
seed  after  listing  and  crossing,  to  be  carefully  placed  dose  to  the 
landside  of  the  furrows :  not  dropt  in  the  careless  scattering  manner 
usual.  The  corn  thus  grew  straight,  and  admitted  the  plough  to 
pass  near  the  plants. 

The  following  highly  valuable  observations  are  by  Joseph  Coopei, 
Esq.  of  ISew-Jersey,  and  doubtless  will  receive  serious  attention  5 
they  tend  to  prove  what  perfection  may  be  attained  by  continued 
care  and  attention,  while  at  the  same  time,  they  shew  the  absurdity 
of  the  common  opinion  of  the  necessity  for  changing  seed. 

:{ In  or  about  the  year  1772.  a  friend  sent  me  a  few  grains  of  a, 
small  kind  of  Indian  corn,  the  grains  of  which  were  not  larger  than 
goose  shot,  which  he  informed  me,  by  a  note  in  which  they  were 
enclosed,  were  originally  from  Guinea,  and  produced  from  eight  to  ten 
ears  on  a  stalk.  Those  grains  I  planted,  and  found  the  production 
to  answer  the  description,  but  the  ears  small,  and  few  of  them  ripe 
before  frost,  I  saved  some  of  the  largest  and  earliest,  and  planted 
'♦them  between  rows  of  larger  and  earlier  kinds  of  corn,  which  produ- 
ced a  mixture  to  advantage ;  then  I  saved  seed  from  stalks  that 
produced  the  greatest  number  of  the  largest  ears,  and  first  ripe, 
which  I  planted  the  ensuing  season,  and  was  not  a  little  gratified  to 
find  its  production  preferable,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  to  that 
of  any  corn  I  had  ever  planted.  This  kind  of  corn  I  have  continu- 
ed planting-  ever  since,  selecting  that  designed  for  seed  in  the  manner 
I  would  wish  others  to  try,  viz  When  the  first  ears  are  ripe  enough 
for  seed,  gather  a  sufficient  quantity  for  early  corn,  or  replant- 
ing, and  at  the  time  you  would  wish  your  corn  to  be  ripe  generally, 
gather  a  sufficient  quantity  for  planting  the  next  year,  having  parti- 
cular care  to  take  it  from  stalks  that  are  large  at  bottom,  of  a  regular 
taper,  not  over  tall,  the  ears  set  low  and  containing  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  good  sizeable  ears  of  the  best  quality  ;  let  it  dry  speedily,  and 
from  the  corn  gathered  as  last  described,  plant  your  main  crop,  and 
if  any  hills  should  be  missing,  re-plant  them  from  the  first  gathered, 
which  will  cause  the  crop  to  ripen  more  regularly  than  is  common  5 
this  is  a  great  benefit.  The  above  method  I  have  practised  many 
years,  and  am  satisfied  it  has  increased  the  quantity  and  improved 
the  quality  of  my  crops  beyond  the  expectation  of  any  person  who 
has  not  tried  the  experiments.  The  distance  of  planting  corn,  and 
number  of  grains  in  a  hill,  are  matters  many  differ  in  ;  perhaps  dif- 
ferent soils  may  require  a  difference  in  both  these  respects  ;  but  in 
every  kind  of  soil  I  have  tried,  I  find  planting  the  rows  6  feet  asunder 
each  way,  as  near  as  right  angles  as  may  be,  and  leaving  not  more 
than  three  stalks  in  a  hill,  produces  the  best  crop.  The  common 
method  of  saving  seed  corn  by  taking  the  ears  from  the  heap,  or  crib, 
is  attended  with  two  disadvantages:  one  is,  the  taking  the  largest 
ears  which  have  generally  grown  one  on  a  stalk — this  lessens  the  pro- 


ON    CORN.  247 

Auction  ;  the  other  is,  taking  ears  that  have  ripened  at  different  times, 
which  causes  the  production  to  be  the  same." 

[In  the  choosing  of  seed,  choose  1st.  the  best  in  kind  :  2.  the  ri- 
pest; 3.  ears  that  have  all  ripened  earliest,  if  you  want  an  early 
crop.  You  should  take  as  much  pains  to  select  your  seed  grain  as 
your  seed  cattle  or  horses.     T.  C] 

If  twenty  loads  of  good  manure  can  be  afforded  for  an  acre,  it- 
should  be  spread  on  the  land  and  ploughed  in  :  if  no  more  than  half 
of  that  quantity,  it  will  be  best  to  put  it  in  holes.  In  the  former 
case,  it  usually  comes  up  better,  suffers  less  by  drought,  and  worms; 
and  the  land  is  left  in  better  order  after  the  crop  In  the  latter  case, 
the  plants  are  more  assisted  in  their  growth  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  manure.  If  the  manure  be  new  dung,  burying  it  under 
the  furrows  is  by  far  the  better  method. 

The  right  time  of  seeding  the  ground  may  be  from  the  first  to  the 
third  week  in  May;  or  a  little  sooner  or  later  according  to  the  dryness 
of  the  soil,  and  the  forwardness  of  spring.  The  farmers  have  a  rule 
in  this  case,  said  to  be  borrowed  from  the  aboriginals,  which  is,  to 
plant  corn  when  the  leaves  of  white  oak  begin  to  appear.  But  so 
much  time  is  commonly  taken  up  in  planting  this  corn,  it  being 
tedious  work  to  dung  it  in  holes,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  begin  in 
the  driest  part  of  the  field  a  little  earlier  than  this  rule  directs. 

Shell  the  seed  gently  by  hand,  that  it  may  not  be  torn  or  bruised  at 
all,  rejecting  about  an  inch  at  each  end  of  the  ear.  And,  if  any  corns 
appear  with  black  eyes,  led  them  also  be  rejected,  not  because  they 
will  not  grow  at  all,  the  contrary  being  true,  but  because  the  black- 
ness indicates,  either  some  defect  in  drying,  or  want  of  perfection  in 
the  grain  Put  three,  or  at  most  four  corns  in  what  is  called  a  hill, 
and  let  them  not  be  very  near  together;  for  the  more  the  roots  crowd 
each  other,  the  more  they  will  prevent  the  growth  of  each  other. 

If  planting  a  second  time  should  become  necessary,  by  means  of 
the  destruction  of  the  first  seed,  or  if  planting  be  delayed  on  any  ac- 
count till  the  beginning  of  June,  then  it  will  be  proper  that  the  seed 
should  have  warm  water  poured  on  it.  Let  it  not  soak  more  than 
a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  be  cooled  speedily,  and  planted  before  it 
dries.  The  corn  will  be  forwarded  in  its  growth  by  several  days. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  with  about  two  inches  of  earth. 

To  prevent  birds  and  vermin  from  pulling  up  the  corn,  steep  some 
corn  in  a  strong  infusion  of  Indian  poke,  or  refuse  tobacco,  and- 
sprinkle  it  over  the  ground  before  the  corn  is  up.  White  threads 
stretched  over  a  field  of  corn,  will  prevent  crows  from  alighting  upon 
it.     But  I  doubt  whether  this  will  deter  any  other  birds 

A  handful  of  ashes,  or  a  table  spoonful  of  gypsum  on  each  hill, 
will  stimulate  the  plants,  and  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  their  being 
annoyed  by  worms.  Some  lay  it  on  just  before  the  first,  or  second 
hoeing.  It  wils  have  a  better  effect  in  preventing  worms,  if  laid  on 
before  the  corn  is  up.  But  it  is  commonly  designed  to  answer  chiefly 
as  a  top-dressing ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  would  answer  better  near 
the  third  hoeing  ;  for  then  the  plants  want  the  greatest  degree  of  nou- 
rishment, as  they  begin  to  grow  very  rapidly.  Two  dressings,  to 
answer  the  two  purposes,  would  npt  be  amiss. 


248  ON    CORN. 

When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  the  plough  must 
pass  in  the  interval,  making  two  furrows  in  each,  turned  from  the 
rows ;  and  then  the  weeds  killed  with  the  hand  hoe,  and  a  little  earth 
drawn  about  the  plants.     This  operation  we  call  weeding. 

In  about  half  a  month  after,  plough  again,  but  across  the  formed  Tur- 
rows,  and  turn  the  furrows  towards  the  rows.  Then  with  he  ;  and- 
hoe  earth  the  corn  as  much  as  it  will  bear.  This  is  called  moulding 
or  half-hilling. 

When  the  plants  are  about  knee-high,  and  before  they  send  out 
their  panicles,  or  spindels,  give  them  the  third  and  last  hoeing. 
The  best  way  is  to  plough  one  furrow  in  an  interval,  both  ways. 
The  cultivator  with  two  mould-boards  would  be  better  for  this  work 
than  the  common  horse-plough,  as  it  would  throw  the  mould  equally 
towards  each  row,  and  save  labour  in  hand-hoeing.  The  ground 
would  thus  be  cut  into  squares,  and  the  hills  almost  completely  form- 
ed. In  finishing  them,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  be  not  made 
too  high,  or  steep,  that  they  may  not  divert  the  water  which  falls  in 
rains  from  the  roots.  When  hills  are  too  much  raised,  they  also  pre- 
vent the  warm  iufluence  of  the  sun  upon  the  lower  most  roots,  by 
too  great  a  thickness  of  earth ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  plants 
are  put  to  the  exertion  of  sending  out  a  new  set  of  roots,  at  a  suitable 
distance  from  the  surface. 

Some  think  high  hills  are  needful  to  make  the  corn  stand  up- 
right. 1  never  could  perceive  the  advantage  of  it.  But  I  am  confi- 
dent it  is  oftener  broken  by  winds  when  the  hills  are  uncommonly 
high,  which  is  a  greater  evil  than  its  leaning  half  way  to  the  ground, 
if  indeed  that  be  any  evil  at  all. 

The  farmer  who  wishes  for  a  large  crop  of  this  corn,  should  not 
annoy  it  with  running  beans,  or  pumpkins  ;  the  former,  by  winding 
round  the  stalks  and  ears,  cramp  them  in  their  growth,  and  some- 
times bend  them  down  to  the  ground,  by  their  weight;  the  latter,  by 
their  luxuriant  growth,  rob  the  hills  of  much  vegetable  food,  and  by 
their  thick  shade,  shut  out  the  influence  of  the  sun  from  the  roots  of 
the  corn. 

At  the  second  and  third  hoeings,  all  the  suckers  should  be  buried 
under  the  soil ;  not  broken  off,  as  is  the  common  practice,  because 
this  wounds  the  plants.  If  the  suckers  be  suffered  to  grow,  they  sel- 
dom or  never  produce  fair  and  perfect  ears ;  and  they  rob  the  ears 
on  the  main  stalk  of  their  nourishment.  I  mention  the  second  and 
third  hoeings,  because  the  suckers  will  not  all  appear  till  the  third ; 
and  the  sooner  they  are  destroyed  the  better  the  crop  will  be. 

Instead  of  the  common  method  of  planting,  if  your  land  be  rich, 
easy  to  till,  and  free  from  obstacles,  I  should  think  it  would  be  best 
to  plant  corn  in  the  drill  method,  the  rows  being  of  the  same  distance 
as  in  the  common  way,  placing  the  corn  about  five  inches  asunder. 
I  have  found  by  experiment,  that  a  gt eater  quantity  of  corn  may  be 
produced  in  this  method,  than  in  hills;  and  the  labour  is  but  little,  if  at 
all,  increased.  In  a  small  field  where  the  dung  had  been  evenly 
spread,  and  ploughed  in,  I  planted  one  row  thus,  the  rest  being  in 
the  common  way ;  and  it  yielded  at  harvest,  one  eighth  part  more 


ON    CORN.  %>*& 

com  by  measure  than  either  of  the  two  nearest  rows,  the  corn  being 
eqiMily  ripe  and  good. 

When  there  is  reason  to  apprehend  that  the  ground  will  prove  too 
moist  for  this  crop,  it  will  be  advisable  to  plough  it  into  narrow  ridges, 
and  seed  each  ridge  with  one  or  two  rows,  as  shall  be  found  most 
convenient.  Some  of  the  finest  crops  that  I  have  known,  have  been 
raised  in  this  method. 

When  a  season  is  at  all  wet,  this  would  be  the  best  culture  in  almost 
any  soil,  unless  the  very  driest  be  excepted. 

There  is  a  kind  of  ridging,  which  would  be  very  proper  for  this 
plant,  not  only  on  account  of  drying  the  soil,  but  that  the  land  may 
have  an  alternate  resting,  or  fallowing,  between  the  rows.  In  the 
common  method  of  plain  ploughing,  it  commonly  happens  that  a 
hill  stands  precisely  in  the  place  of  a  hill  of  the  preceding  year. 
When  this  is  the  case,  the  plants  will  receive  less  nourishment  than 
if  the  hill  had  a  new  situation.  That  each  hill  may  always  have 
this  advantage,  let  a  ridge  be  formed  by  two  furrows,  turning  part 
of  a  row  of  hills  on  each  side,  so  as  to  meet  each  other,  in  the  last 
year's  interval:  then  small  ridges  will  be  formed  on  which  the  rows 
sliall  be  planted.  If  dung  be  first  spread  over  the  ground  most  of  it 
grill  be  buried  where  it  should  be,  in  the  bottom  of  the  ridges.  At 
the  time  of  weeding,  the  remainder  of  the  old  hills  may  be  turned 
towards  the  rows.  With  such  a  mode  of  culture,  land  could  not 
soon  be  exhausted,  even  by  a  successive  cropping  with  maize. 

The  uses  to  which  this  invaluable  plant  is  applied  in  the  United 
States  are  well  known.  The  articles  of  diet  into  which  it  enters  as 
a  component  part,  are  various  and  important  Alone,  it  is  served  up 
in  several  forms,  all  of  which  are  excellent.  As  a  strong  nourishing 
food  for  horses  and  swine,  it  is  probably  superior  to  any  other  grain. 
Many  articles  will  fatten  animals,  but  it  is  corn  alone  upon  •which 
we  depend  for  obtaining  that  solidity  in  the  fat  and  muscle  which  are 
so  valuable  in  slaughtered  animals.  Experience  proves  that  corn 
broken  by  a  mill,  will  go  one-third  further  in  feeding  beasts,  than 
when  given  whole.  The  stalks  and  blades  of  corn,  if  carefully 
stacked  and  cut,  have  been  found  good  food  for  horses.  By  a  pow- 
erful cutting  box,  the  stalks  and  blades  were  cut  small,  and  given 
sometimes  alone,  and  sometimes  with  oats,  and  were  observed  to 
increase  the  spirits  and  flesh  of  the  animal  in  every  sensible  manner. 
The  reason  is  evident ;  the  stalks,  especially  the  two  lower  joints, 
abound  with  sugar,  and  was  extracted  during  our  revolutionary  war ; 
and  sugar  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  principles  in  nature.  Consi- 
dering the  importance  of  the  use  of  the  stalks,  it  is  truly  melancholy 
,  to  see  acres  covered  with  them,  in  winter,  in  some  parts,  instead  of 
having  them  housed  for  the  cattle.  In  the  Venetian  territory,  ac- 
cording to  the  late  Dr.  Scandella,  the  blades  of  corn  are  pulled, 
dried,  and  given  to  cattle  without  injury  to  the  crops  of  corn,  and 
Mr.  Bordley  says,  he  stripped  150  hills  of  corn,  and  cut  off  the  tops 
when  the  corn  was  not  hard,  without  any  difference  being  observed 
between  the  stalks  so  treated,  and  the  rest  of  the  field  Dr  Scan- 
della also  states,  that  corn  is  sown  broad  cast,  upon  highly  nmnured 
places  near  the  stable,  and  when  it  reaches  its  highest  growth,  and 

32 


258  ON  CHICORrUM  INTUBUS. 

the  tassels  begin  to  wither,  the  stalks  are  cut  down  morning  and 
evening,  and  given  to  the  cattle  in  the  stables.  These  facts  may  be 
useful  to  those  who  want  fodder,  and  have  corn,  but  barlev  straw  or 
hay,  ought  to  be  cut  wiih  green  corn,  or  blades  and  tops,  to  prevent 
the  beasts  from  becoming  haven.  It  has  already  been  said  that  the 
cebs  of  corn  are  chopped  fine  by  mills  for  cattle  in  Lancaster  county. 


Chicorium  Intubus. 


CHICORIUM  INTUBUS.  Wild  endive;  which,  by  the  ex-< 
periments  of  Mr.  Wakefield,  and  others  in  England,  seems  of  pro- 
digious consequence  for  the  supply  of  summer  feed  It  has  been 
sown  broad  cast,  but  appears  to  answer  best  in  drills.  It  has  yield- 
ed from  20  to  40  tons  of  green  fodder  per  acre.  In  America  it 
would  be  particularly  suitable  for  summer  feed,  as  the  roots  seek 
nourishment  from  a  great  depth. 

This  root  is  perennial  and  has  generally  been  regarded  in  the  light 
of  a  noxious  weed  ;  it  has,  however,  for  several  years  past,  been  cul- 
tivated in  France  as  food  for  cattle.  In  Lombardy,  it  is  sown,  mix- 
ed with  other  herbs  of  pasture,  and  cut  three  or  four  feet.  It  is 
reputed  there  to  increase  both  the  milk  and  the  flesh  of  cattle,  and  f 
be  very  nutritious  when  made  into  hay.  Horses  eat  it  greedily  ;  and 
it  is  an  important  object  for  summer  soiling,  both  for  them  and  cat- 
tle.    It  is  also  freely  eaten  by  sheep. 

Chicory  defies  drought,  being  of  early  growth.  The  stalks  are 
so  thick  and  stiff  as  to  support  themselves  against  winds  and  the  hea- 
viest rains.  The  most  severe  cold  does  not  injure  them.  The 
quickness  of  growth  renders  it  very  valuable,  because  it  furnishes 
abundance  of  salutary  fodder  at  a  season  when  green  food  is  scarce. 
It  has  been  found  to  grow  seven  inches  in  three  weeks,  whilst  sain- 
foin and  burnet  grew  only  four  inches  Two  cuttings  may  may  made 
of  it  the  first  year,  and  three  or  four,  according  to  the  season,  every 
year  after,  in  May,  July,  August  and  October,  or  in  May,  July 
and  October,  never  letting  it  stand  till  it  becomes  hard  and  sticky : 
or  it  may  be  cut  continually,  by  beginning  again  when  the  whole 
piece  is  gone  over,  and  thus  yield  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  food  du- 
ring seven  or  eight  months, 

The  produce  is  said  to  be  superior,  upon  the  whole,  to  that  of 
Lucerne,  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one.  A  piece  of  ground 
sown  with  chicory,  was  found  to  yield,  by  the  acre,  the  year  of  sow- 
at  two  cuttings,  July  the  24th,  and  October  the  17th — 19  tons, 
4  cwt.  Second  year,  at  three  cuttings,  May  21st,  July  24th,  and 
December  3d — 38  tons,  9  cwt.  And  the  average  produce  of  four 
years,  was  near  thirty  tons. 


ON  CABB4*E.  251 

[I  consider  the  Wild  Chicory,  or  Succory,  Chicorium  Intubus.  as 
the  best  of  plants  calculated  for  the  summer  feed  of  horses  and  cows, 
when  cut  and  given  in  the  farm-yard.  It  can  be  cut  four  times 
a  year.  Its  roots  furnish  the  very  best  substitute  for  coffee  yet 
known.  They  should  be  cleaned,  put  into  the  oven  when  the  bread 
is  taken  out,  and  left  to  cool.  Repeat  this.  Use  one  half  Chicory, 
so  treated,  with  one  half  coffee.  I  speak  from  personal  knowledge 
of  this  plan,  in  both  respects.     T.  C] 

The  leaves  of  the  cultivated  chicory,  endive,  when  blanched, 
form  an  ingredient  in  early  spring  salads. 


On  Cabbage. 

CABBAGE,  or  Braasica,  L.  a  genus  of  plants  comprisiug  six- 
teen species,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal : 

1.  The  campestris,  or  field  cabbage,  which  is  also  a  native,  and 
grows  on  the  sea-shore  near  Dover.  The  severest  winters  do  not  in- 
jure this  plant,  which  becomes  peculiarly  useful  when  every  other 
species  is  destroyed.  It  is  more  generally  known  under  the  name  of 
the  cauliflower,  and  its  culture  has  been  much  improved  in  Britain, 
where  it  has  become  a  source  of  national  wealth;  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  being  supplied  thence  with  seeds,  and,  till  lately,  Kolland 
almost  wholly  with  plants. 

2.  The  Napus,  or  rape,  or  coleseed  cabbage,  which  is  indigenous, 
and  also  reared  in  various  parts  of  England,  especially  in  the  Isle  of 
Ely,  for  its  seed,  from  which  the  rape-oil  is  extracted  :  the  refuse  is 
called  oil-cake,  and  is  useful  for  the  fattening  of  oxen,  and  other  cat- 
tle. The  most  piercing  frost  effects  not  this  hardy  plant,  which,  in 
severe  winters,  is  of  no  small  service  in  feeding  ewes;  when,  from 
the  intenseness  of  the  cold,  the  ground  is  so  frozen  that  no  turnips  can 
be  taken  up.  In  the  county  of  Norfolk,  the  cakes  are  broken  to  pie- 
ces and  strewed  on  the  land  as  manure,  for  which  purpose  it  is  consi- 
dered particularly  efficacious.  The  cultivated  variety,  though  it  has 
a  stronger  taste,  may  be  eaten  like  the  turnip. 

3  The  rapa,  or  turnip  cabbage.  This  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
and  grows  principally  in  corn-fields :  it  is  eaten  either  boiled,  or 
roasted,  or  raw,  generally  with  the  addition  of  pepper.  The  im- 
portance and  value  of  this  species,  for  the  fatting  of  cattle  in  parti- 
cular, have  not  been  generally  known  or  ascertained  till  within  these 
few  years.  The  soil  intended  for  planting,  ought  to  be  manured  and 
tilled  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  common  turnip,  the  necessary 
extent  of  old  p  isture  ground  being  previously  breast-ploughed  and 
burnt.  The  land  should  be  dug  as  shallow  as  possible,  and  the 
ashes  turned  in:  about  midsummer,  or  sooner,  should  the  weather 


252  ON   CABBAGE. 

be  favourable,  the  plantiug  ought  to  be  commenced ;  two  perches , 
if  well  stocked  with  plants,  being  sufficient  to  supply  an  acre. 

Independently  of  the  utility  of  this  plant  as  a  fodder  for  cattle  du- 
ring the  winter  season,  it  has  been  much  recommended  as  a  sea-store, 
from  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  preserved  on  ship  board  :  and 
as  it  furnishes  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  food  for  sailors  on  long 
voyages,  at  a  time  when  every  other  fresh  vegetable  is  entirely  spoil- 
ed. 

4.  The  oleracea,  or  sea-colwort,  sea-cabbage,  or  common  cabbage, 
is  also  indigenous,  and  grows  principally  on  cliffs  near  the  sea-cost. 
Early  in  the  spring,  this  species  is  preferred  to  those  that  are  cultivat- 
ed ;  but,  when  gathered  on  the  sea-cost,  it  is  requisite  that  it  be  boil- 
ed in  two  waters,  to  deprive  it  of  its  saline  taste.  The  roots  may  be 
eaten  like  those  of  the  preceding  species :  but  they  are  by  no  means 
so  tender.  All  the  various  kinds  of  garden  cabbage  in  use  at  our  ta- 
bles, originate  from  this  The  red  cabbage  is  chiefly  used  for  pickling. 
In  some  countries,  the  white  cabbage  is  buried  in  autumn,  when  full 
grown,  and  is  thus  preserved  during  the  whole  winter.*  They  are 
cut  in  pieces  by  the  Germans,  who,  mixing  them  with  some  aromatic 
herbs  and  salt,  press  them  closely  down  in  a  tub,  where  they  soon 
ferment,  and  are  eaten  under  the  name  of  sauer  kraut. 

Dr.  Darwin  observes  that  Sea-Cale  is  much  esteemed  for  the  de- 
licacy of  its  ta$te,  which  is  superior  to  most  kinds  of  broccoli. 
It  appears  that  this  species  of  cabbage  should  be  sown  the  latter  end 
of  March,  or  the  beginning  of  April,  in  drills,  and  afterward,  earthed 
up.  In  autumn,  it  should  be  transplanted  into  high  beds,  one 
row  of  roots  in  each  bed,  about  a  foot  asunder;  and,  in  winter,  it 
should  be  covered  up.  The  beds  should  be  made  in  dr}7  ground, 
and  the  produce  will  not  be  fit  for  the  table  till  the  third  year  after 
sowing.  The  year  before  it  is  cut  for  eating,  it  must  be  covered^  in 
the  beginning  oT  winter,  first  with  stable-dung,  which  may  be  pre- 
vented from  pressing  on  it,  by  placing  a  few  sticks  in  the  form  of  a 
cone  over  each  root ;  it  should  then  be  covered  with  long  litter  to  the 
height  of  two  or  three  feet.  About  the  beginning  of  January  it  may 
be  gathered,  and  the  cutting  continued  till  May,  one  bed  being  kept 
under  another.  It  should  be  boiled,  and  sent  up  on  toast  like  aspa- 
ragus. 

To  this  species  also  belong  those  varieties  of  the  brassica,  denomi- 
nated the  turnip-rooted  cabbage,  and  the  drum-headed  cabbage.  The 
former  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Lapland,  and 
is  found  to  be  well  calculated  for  uplands  and  wolds.  It  delights  in  a 
dry,  sandy,  mixed  soil,  which  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
turnips.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  in  the  beginning  of  June,  and 
yieids  so  abundantly,  that  half  a  pound  of  it,  if  sown  in  a  seed  bed 
two  or  three  perches  square,  will  produce  plants  sufficient  to  stock  an 
acre.  But  if  they  run  too  much  to  stalk,  care  must  be  taken  to  trans- 
plant them,  and  that  to  check  their  luxuriant  vegetation.  This  plant 
is  very  hardy,  and  its  bushy  tops  furnish  a  most  excellent  and  abun- 
dant food  for  cattle  during  the  spring.     It  is  principally  raised  for 

*  See  Withering,  page  592 


ON  CABBAGE.  253 

feeding  oxen,  cows,  hogs,  and  horses  ;  but,  if  given  to  sheep  timing 
winter,  it  occasions  a  species  of  white  flux,  of  which,  however,  they 
soon  recover  on  a  change  of  food;  and  which  is  seldom,  if  ever,  atten  - 
ded  with  any  dangerous  consequences. 

The  drum-headed  cabbage  is  usually  sown  on  a  bed  towards  the  end 
of  February  or  March;  but  sometimes  also  in  August,  in  which  case 
the  plants  are  set  out  in  November,  and  tiansplanted  in  July.  A 
hardy  variety,  of  a  deep  green  colour  with  purple  veins,  and  of  the 
same  size  as  the  drum-head,  has  been  produced  from  this  cabbage, 
by  planting  it  altenately  with  the  red  kind  ;  and  when  the  pods  were 
completely  formed,  by  cutting  down  the  red  and  leaving  the  other  for 
seed. 

5.  The  muralis,  or  wall-cabbage,  which  is  usually  found  on  old 
walls  and  rubbish.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Britain ;  all  its  parts  are 
considerably  acrid,  and  have  a  rank,  disagreeable  smell :  it  is,  therefore 
never  cultivated. 

6.  The  Ai])ina,  or  Savoy.  This  is  an  exotic,  and  is  chiefly  pro- 
pagated for  winter  use;  beiny  generally  preferred  when  nipped  by  the 
frost.  It  is  sown  towards  the  latter  end  of  April,  and  the  culture  of  it 
varies  but  little  from  that  pursued  with  respect  to  the  common  white 
cabbage  ;  the  only  difference  being,  that  the  latter  species  may  be  set 
more  closely  together  than  the  former;  for,  if  planted  in  close  places, 
it  is  subject  to  be  almost  consume  i  by  caterpillars  or  other  vermin. 

To  these  species  may  be  added  the  Scotch  cabbage,  so  denomi- 
nated from  being  more  particularly  cultivated  in  Scotland,  where  it 
constitutes  a  very  considerable  article  of  food  for  cattle.  The  varie- 
ty introduced  into  England  a  few  years  since,  is  the  green  Scotch 
cabbage,  which  will  grow  extremely  well  on  moor-lands,  and,  if  cut 
just  before  the  frost  sets  in,  and  hung  up  under  cover,  form*  a  food 
so  peculiarly  agreeable  to  cattle,  that,  when  once  they  have  tasted  it, 
they  will  rarely  relish  any  other. 

There  is  another  species  of  the  Brassica,  denominated  the  mow- 
ing cabbage  (choux  a  fouclier.)  It  appears  to  be  a  native  of  Ger- 
many, but  has  been  cultivated  with  considerable  success  in  France, 
both  as  a  pulse  for  mankind,  being  free  from  the  bitter  herbaceous 
taste  of  the  other  cabbages,  and  as  a  fodder  equally  good  and  abun- 
dant for  cattle.  This  plant  is  reared  from  seed,  and  will  admit  of 
being  cut  four,  five,  or  six  times  in  the  year  it  is  sown;  after  which 
it  is  left  for  the  winter.  In  the  month  of  February  it  shoots  forth, 
when  its  leaves  may  be  cut  again;  in  April  it  begins  to  grow  up,  and 
produces  stalks  and  seed,  which  may  be  gathered  in  June.  During 
the  first  year  of  its  growth,  this  plant  does  not  send  forth  any 
stalks;  its  leaves  appearing  to  rise  immediately  out  of  the  ground, 
from  •which  circumstance  it  may  be  cut  like  grass,  and  dried  in  a 
similar  manner  for  hay.  It  will  also  yield  oil,  as  good  as  that  of 
cole  and  poppy  seed. 

To  produce  early  Cabbages, — In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  sprouts 
on  the  cabbage-stalks  have  grown  to  the  length  of  a  plant  fit  for  sett- 
ing, cut  them  out  with  a  small  slice  of  the  stalk,  about  two  inches  long: 
and,  if  the  season  permit,  plant  them  in  a  garden,  and  the  usual  care 
will  produce  good  cabbages. 


254  ON  BUCK-WHEAY. 

A  gentleman  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  pursued  the  following 
plan.  He  sowed  his  seed  in  August,  and  set  out  the  plants  in  au- 
tumn, letting  them  remain  out  all  winter.  If  very  cold,  covered  them 
with  straw;  of  500  plants,  300  commonly  lived  and  headed  verv  ear- 
ly :  the  rest  answered  for  greens. 

From  the  earliest  stage  of  its  growth,  the  cabbage  becomes  the  prey 
of  a  variety  of  insects,  none  of  which  is  more  formidable  than  the  ca- 
terpillar. When  young,  its  principal  enemy  is  theChrysomela  sana- 
toria, or  turnip-fly,  and  as  it  approaches  nearer  to  maturity,  the  Pa- 
pilio  Brassica,  or  cabbage-butterfly.  To  expel  the  former,  Dr.  Wi- 
thering directs  the  ground  to  be  strewed  with  soot.  He  alsq 
adds,  that  if  the  plants  be  whipped  with  the  gieen  boughs  of  alder, 
[elder,]  the  latter  will  not  touch  them. — With  respect  to  caterpillars, 
it  has  been  recommended  as  a  certain  remedy  for  the  mischief  they 
cause,  that  all  the  borders  of  the  ground,  where  it  is  intended  to  plant 
cabbages,  be  sown  with  hemp;  and,  however  the  vicinity  may  be  in- 
fested with  those  insects,  the  ground  enclosed  will  be  found  to  be  per- 
fectly free  from  them;  no  vermin  will  approach  it. 

Mr.  Bordley  advises  to  plant  a  cabbage  in  the  step,  between  two 
hills  of  corn,  (maize)  as  the  shade  may  be  favourable  to  them. 

[Cabbages  are  a  very  profitable  article  of  field  culture  in  strong 
land,  as  a  food  for  cattle.  The  kind  proper  for  this  purpose,  is  the 
large  Scotch  cabbage  —  f    C] 

The  highly  beneficial  effects  experienced  from  pickle  cabbage,  on 
long  voyages,  is  well  known. 


On  Buck-Wheat. 


BUCK- WHEAT,  Sarrasin,  the  Polygonum  fagopyrum,  L.  a 
species  of  the  Persicaria,  also  called  snake-weed,  bucke,  branks, 
Franch-wheat  or  crap.  As  this  useful  plant  requires  no  botanical 
description,  we  shall  here  proceed  to  state  its  most  approved  method 
of  culture,  and  important  uses  in  agriculture;  both  subjects  being 
intimately  connected. 

Buck-wheat  was  introduced  into  Europe  nearly  four  centuries  since, 
and  according  to  Gerald's  Herbal,  cultivated  in  England  about  the 
year  1597- 

It  is  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Asia.  During  the  last 
thirty  years,  it  has  excited  the  attention  of  able  agriculturists,  who 
have  furnished  us  with  the  following  result  of  their  experience. 
This  grain  delights  in  a  mellow,  dry,  loose,  sandy  soil,  but  does  not 
thri-  e  so  well  in  h  free,  loamy  stonebrash,  and  should  never  be  sown 
in  wet,  poachy  ground.     It  requires  little  or  no  manure,  but  frequent 


©N  BUCK-WHEVf.  255 

sun-shine.  On  heaths  newly  ploughed  up.  the  turf  of  which  has 
been  burnt,  or  that  have  been  manured  with  wood  ashes,  its  vegeta- 
tion is  luxurient  The  proper  season  for  sowing  is  the  last  week  in 
July.  A  shower  of  rain,  after  the  seed  is  harrowed  in,  greatly  pro- 
motes its  growth,  and  it  generally  appears  above  ground  in  five  or 
six  days. 

Buck-wheat  is  in  flower  throughout  the  summer,  and  would  yield 
much  larger  crops,  if  all  the  grains  would  uniformly  ripen,  and  could 
be  collected  at  the  same  time.  About  half  a  bushel  is  sown  on  each 
acre,  in  this  country ;  and  the  Germans  calculate  sixty  pounds  weight 
to  every  hundred  square  rods  of  land.  From  seven  to  eight  weeks 
only  are  required  for  bringing  it  to  maturity,  and  it  produces  from 
twelve  to  twenty  fold.  In  this  state  it  affords  an  excellent  substitute 
for  hay ;  and  it  is  affirmed,  that  the  German  farmer  obtains,  at  less 
expense  than  by  mowing  and  drying  the  whole,  in  the  usual  way,  ten 
times  the  quantity  of  corn. 

Another  variety  of  this  grain  was,  about  a  century  ago,  introduced 
into  Germany,  and  has  lately  also  been  cultivated  in  Britain,  known 
by  the  name  of  Siberian  buck-wheat.  It  possesses  considerable  ad- 
vantages over  the  former;  because  it  is  not  only  a  fourth  part  heavier 
in  the  grain,  but  also  most  palatable,  and,  in  this  respect,  resembles 
rice.  It  thrives  in  the  poorest  soil,  is  not  affected  by  cold,  and  being 
more  disposed  to  branch  out  and  spread  its  stalks,  requires  scarcely 
one  half  of  the  seed  necessary  for  the  culture  of  the  preceding  species. 
From  repeated  experiments,  made  in  England,  it  appears  that 
the  culture  of  buck-wheat  ought,  in  many  cases,  to  be  adopted  in 
preference  to  a  summer  fallowing;  as  the  crop  produced  is  not  only 
so  much  clear  gain,  but  also  affords  a  considerable  quantity  /  of  straw 
for  fodder  and  manure;  besides  which,  it  is  a  more  advantageous 
preparation  for  the  next  crop.  There  will  be  sufficient  time  to  sow 
the  land  with  buck-wheat  after  spring  feedings,  or  a  crop  of  turnip- 
rooted  cabbage,  or  vetches.  When  sown  in  July,  buck-wheat  is  an 
excellent  sheltering  crop  to  clover;  and  two  crops  of  this  grain  have, 
in  favourable  years,  been  obtained  from  the  same  land.  Mr.  Arthur 
Young,  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture"  has 
inserted  an  instructive  paper,  communicated  by  the  Rev.  R.  Moseley, 
(Sept.  11th,  1786)  from  which  we  learn  the  following  valuable  facts  : 
That  three  crops  were  sown  on  the  same  ground,  between  autumn 
and  autumn,  with  only  three  ploughings,  namely,  winter  tares  in  Sep- 
tember, with  one  ploughing,  which  were  reaped  early  in  the  succeed- 
ing  summer ;  then  immediately  buck-wheat  was  sown,  after  one  plough- 
ing and  harrowing;  in  September  the  buck-wheat  was  ploughed  in,  and 
wheat  was  sown  on  this  one  ploughing  the  crop  of  which  was  great. 
Thus,  says  Mr.  Young,  as  the  spring  advances,  and  the  sun  becomes 
powerful  enough  to  exhale  the  humidity  of  the  land,  the  crop  also  ad- 
vances and  screens  it  from  the  action  of  his  beams.  The  weeds  in 
the  soil  vegetating  with  the  young  tares,  are  either  strangled  by  their 
luxuriance,  or  cut  off  with  them,  before  they  produce  seed.  This 
crop  is  cleared  from  the  land  so  early,  that  the  soil  would  remain  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  for  three  months,  in  the  most  scorching  heat  of  the 
summer  $  and,  if  thus  left  exposed,  the  three  ploughings  would  be 


256  ON    BUCK-WHEAT. 

hurtful  to  the  soil,  except  that  they  might  destroy  "some  weeds. 
Hence  to  give  one  ploughing  immediately,  and  harrow  in  buck-wheat, 
saves  expense;  and  the  growing  herbage  shades  the  earth,  when  it 
most  requires  to  be  protected  :  by  this  management,  a  dressing  of  ma- 
nure is  gained  at  the  cheapest  possible  rate.  In  short,  to  introduce 
a  system  more  complete  is  not  in  the  power  of  science 

It  appears  to  be  undecided,  whether  buck-wheat  improves  or  im- 
poverishes the  soil.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  will  produce  the 
latter  effect,  like  all  plants  that  are  suffered  to  run  to  seed;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  that  it  renders  the  soil  more  fertile,  when  ploughed  in, 
before  the  seeds  are  formed.  [This  is  an  excellent  method  of  manur- 
ing for  a  full  crop,  but  it  ought  to  be  turned  in  by  Ducket's  plough. — 
T.C.] 

Hogs  feeding  upon  this  vegetable  are  very  liable  to  scabby  erup- 
tions. 

Buck-wheat  should  be  sown  thin,  because  the  top  blossoms  are 
very  apt  to  be  burnt  by  the  sun,  in  which  case  the  under  ones  will  be 
saved,  as  they  spread  out  and  protect  one  another  from  the  sun.  If 
sown  thick,  the  plants  cannot  throw  out  under  branches.  If  the 
grain  stands,  when  ripe,  it  may  be  cradled ;  but  when  it  has  fallen, 
the  scythe  must  be  used,  and  the  crop  permitted  to  lie  three  days, 
then  raked  while  the  dew  is  on,  to  prevent  the  grain  shedding:  then 
threshed  by  horses. 

Buck-wheat  answers  very  well  with  clover.  Sow  the  huck-wheat 
first  and  harrow  :  then  sow  the  clover  seed,  and  let  the  roller  follow  im- 
mediately. In  this  way  the  land  will  be  sown  even,  and  the  ground 
made  level  for  the  cradle.  The  advantages  of  the  buck-wheat  are, 
that  it  preserves  the  moisture  of  the  land,  in  case  a  dry  season  should 
follow;  shelters  the  clover  till  the  month  of  October,  when  the 
buck-wheat  is  cut  :  after  which  the  sun  can  no  longer  injure  the  clo- 
ver, but  gives  it  a  due  portion  of  warmth,  and  pushes  it  forward 
until  the  cold  of  winter  locks  up  all  vegetation. 

With  respect  to  the  question,  whether  the  buck-wheat  is,  or  is  not 
an  exhauster  of  the  soil,  a  positive  answer  may  be  given.  A  field 
intended  for  barley,  was  partly  sown  with  buck-wheat,  and  when  in 
blossom  in  September,  it  was  ploughed  in  ;  and  the  other  part  of  the 
field  was  left  fallow  until  seed  time.  In  the  succeeding  season,  the 
barley  growing  on  the  part  in  which  the  buck-wheat  had  been 
ploughed,  was  evidently  superior  to  that  which  grew  on  the  fallow 
part.  This  experiment,  made  by  a  plain  farmer,  on  the  German- 
town  road,  with  a  laudable  view  of  determining  the  question,  leaves 
no  room  to  doubt,  that  buck-wheat  tohen  ploughed  in,  when  in  full 
blossom,  acts  as  an  excellent  green  dressing  manure. 

The  straw  of  buck-wheat  is  but  little  esteemed.  Sheep,  however, 
feed  on  it.  It  also  makes  good  manure  when  thrown  into  the  farm- 
yard. 

For  culinary  purposes,  also,  the  grain  of  the  buck-wheat  is  used 
in  various  forms,  and  affords  a  nutritious  meal,  which  is  not  apt  to 
turn  sour  on  the  stomach.  Mixed  with  barley,  it  is,  in  Tuscany, 
baked-  into  bread,  which  possesses  the  property  of  retaining  its 
moisture  much  longer  than  that  of  pure  wheat,  and  though  of  a 


ON  BOORCOLE.  257 

darker  colour,  it  is  equally  nourishing.  In  Germany,  a  very  palata- 
ble grit,  or  a  granulated  meal,  serving  as  an  ingredient  in  pottage, 
puddings,  &c.  is  prepared  of*  buck-wheat;  and  if  the  seed  be  pure, 
the  produce  of  each  bushel  is  ten  pecks  In  the  electorate  of  Bran- 
denburgh,  not  only  ale  and  beer  is  brewed  from  a  mixture  of  it  with 
malt,  but  likewise  a  very  excellent,  spirit  of  a  blueish  shade  is  obtain- 
ed by  distillation  ;  the  flavour  of  which  resembles  that  of  French 
brandy.  The  taste  and  colour  of  stale  beer,  which  may  be  much  im- 
proved by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  the  flour  of  this  grain. 

Buck-wheat  reduced  to  flour,  mixed  with  water,  and  a  little  yeast, 
will  rise  in  the  course  of  two  hours,  if  placed  near  a  fire;  and  be- 
ing then  baked  upon  a  hot  iron,  previously  greased,  forms  very  plea- 
sant cakes,  which  when  buttered,  constitute  part  of  the  diet  of  many 
persons  in  the  United  Stales  during  the  winter.  By  depriving  the 
grain  of  its  husk  before  grinding,  the  flour  is  rendered  white,  and  is 
much  esteemed. 

From  the  fresh  blossoms  of  these  plants,  Dambourney  dyed  wool, 
prepared  with  bismuth  and  tin,  of  a  beautiful  brown  colour  ;  and, 
from  the  dried  flower-bundles,  different  shades  of  green.  Those  of 
the  Siberian  species,  in  particular,  yielded  a  fine  yellow,  which,  on 
boiling  the  wool  still  longer  in  the  dye,  changed  into  a  golden  tint, 
and  at  length  assumed  a  brilliant  yellow. 

[Buck-wheat  ferments  easily,  hence  in  Pennsylvania  for  winter 
use,  distillers  now  take  one-third  rye,  one-third  corn,  one-third  buck- 
wheat :  but  the  spirit  is  not  so  good  as  when  nothing  but  rye  is  used. 
It  is  the  most  unwholesome  grain  that  can  be  given  to  horses :  and 
from  the  quantity  of  butter  used  with  it,  the  most  extravagant  grain 
used  for  the  table  in  our  country — T.  C.J 


On  Boor  cole. 

BOORCOLE,  is  a  species  of  the  Brassica,  L.  and  generally  cul- 
tivated in  the  open  fields  like  turnips,  cabbages,  or  the  turnip-rooted 
cabbage. 

It  is  one  of  those  hardy  plants,  the  leaves  of  which  may  be  cut 
without  detriment  to  its  growth,  and  will  produce  a  new  crop  in  the 
course  of  a  month  or  six  weeks. 

According  to  an  experiment  made  by  Mr  Baker  in  the  year  i  763, 
an  Irish  acre  of  fallow  ground,  which  was  planted  with  boorcole,  at 
the  distance  of  two  feet,  and  hoed  in  the  Tullian  method,  produced 
plants  which  weighed  about  five  pounds  ten  ounces  each,  on  an  ave- 
rage, and  the  whole  produce  of  an  Irish  acre  was  40,096  pounds. 

It  should  be  observed,  that  the  land  must  be  manured,  and  in  a 
high  state  of  tillage,  for  the  cultivation  of  this  plant,  which,  if  kept 

33 


258  ON   THE   COMMON  VETCH. 

constantly  hoed,  will  grow  very  luxuriantly,  and,  in  the  hottest  wea-^ 
ther,  be  infinitely  more  brittle  in  the  leaves  than  any  other  cultivated 
in  gardens,  which  is  a  certain  indication  of  being  a  healthy  plant* 
It  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  farmer,  or  grazier,  on  account  of 
the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  and  he  pr»  perty  of  withstanding  the  ef- 
fect of  severe  frosts,  while  it  affords  an  excellent  vegetable  for  the  ta- 
ble, and  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  feeding  sheep. 

Mr.  Baker  farther  observes,  that  sheep  should  not  bp  suffered  to 
depasture  so  long  upon  a  crop  of  boorcole,  as  to  injure  the,stalks9 
because  its  future  growth  will  be  checked,  by  depriving  it  of  the 
sprouting  leaves. 


On  the  Common  Vetch, 

THE  sativa,  Common  Vetch,  Fetch,  or  Tare,  thrives  in  dry 
meadows,  pastures,  and  corn-fields,  where  it  flowers  from  April  to 
June.  This  species  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  vetch  kind, 
and  is  divided  into  three  varities,  namely  : 

1.  The  Summer  Vetch,  is  raised  from  a  seed,  which  is  usually- 
sown  towards  the  end  of  March,  or  early  in  April,  in  the  proportion 
of  8  to  10  pecks  per  acre,  broad-cast;  though  when  drilled,  half 
that  quantity  is  sufficient,  and  the  crop  will  be  greatly  superior.  This 
variety  is  chiefly  propagated  and  used  for  weaning  lambs  and  sheep, 
as  well  as  for  soiling  horses  and  cows  ;  its  seeds  afford  an  excellent 
food  for  pigeons.  Bees  obtain  a  copious  supply  of  honey  from  the 
young  leaves  of  this  plant,  which  are  marked  with  black,  and  the 
spots  of  which  contain  a  delicious  saccharine  juice. 

2.  The  Winter  Vetch,  is  sown  in  the  month  of  September,  in  the 
same  proportion  as  the  preceding  sort;  a  small  quantity  of  beans,  or 
(which  is  preferable)  of  black  oats,  being  intermixed,  to  support  the 
plants;  which  are  generally  covered  with  long  dung,  to  preserve  them 
from  the  frost  This  variety  is  subservient  to  the  same  purposes  as 
the  summer  vetch,  when  ploughed  into  chalk-lands  in  the  month  of 
3May,  it  serves  as  excellent  manure  for  wheat  intended  to  be  sown  in 
the  succeeding  autumn  In  the  county  of  Gloucester,  (England)  the 
winter  vetch  is  cultivated  as  pasturage  for  horses,  and  is  eaten  off  so 
early,  as  to  admit  of  turnips  being  raised  in  the  same  year. 

3.  The  Pebble  Vetch,  is  sown  in  the  spring,  but  it  is  seldom  culti- 
vated ;  because  it  is  less  hardy  than  either  of  the  preceding  varieties, 
and  does  not  produce  an  equal  quantity  of  fodder. 

The  following  paper  on  the  benefit  arising  from  the  cultivation  of 
vetches,  as  a  summer  fallow  crop,  is  by  Mr.  R.  R.  Livingston. 

"  The  introduction  of  a  plant  unknown  to  our  soil  and  climate,  and 
its  relative  value,  and  in  countries  in  which  it  has  been  naturalised,  is 


QN    THE   COMMON  VETCIT.  259 

•iJways  important  to  agriculture,  either  as  it  presents  the  farmer  a  new 
object  worthy  of  his  attention,  or  as  it  keeps  him  flora  entertaining 
false  ideas  of  its  value,  and  wasting  his  time  and  money  upon  one 
that  will  not  repay  his  expense. 

"  Having  observed  that  vetches,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
tares,  were  cultivated  in  Britain  and  in  many  other  parts  of  Kuropej 
either  for  seed  or  forage,  1  procured  from  Lngland  nine  bushels, 
six  of  which  are  called  spring,  and  three  of  winter  vetches 

"  1st  May,  1794.  Ploughed  and  cross-ploughed  one  acre  of  rye- 
stubbles  ;  the  land,  a  light  loam,  inclining  to  sand,  upon  a  sandy 
bottom,  soil  much  worn  out;  the  preceding  crop  was  summer  rye. 
After  harrowing  fine,  I  sowed  three  bushels  of  spring  vetches. — ' 
When  they  were  up,  spread  six  bushels  of  gypsum.  About  one-fifth 
part  of  the  field  was  on  a  declivity  and  very  poor ;  here  the  crop 
was  thin,  yet  low  and  short,  the  rest  of  the  land  was  finely  covered 
with  a  thick,  close  crop.  The  vines  matted  in  each  other,  insomuch 
that  the  plants  moulded  at  the  bottom.  When  in  full  blossom  they 
were  cut,  about  the  20th  August;  they  yielded  two  large  wagon- 
loads  of  hay,  "which  I  compute  at  25  cwt.  The  provender  appear- 
ed to  me  remarkably  succulent,  and  extremely  well  calculated  for 
cows  and  sheep.  Mine  was  applied  to  the  use  of  the  latter,  but  not 
having  been  at  my  farm  since  the  winter  set  in,  I  can  give  no  ac- 
count of  its  application. 


Second  Experiment. 

"  Soil,  a  loose,  slaty  gravel,  mixed  with  clay,  being  a  dry  hil- 
lock, containing  one  acre  exclusive  of  some  part  in  wood.  In  1793, 
bore  buck-wheat:  ploughed  twice  last  April,  and  first  of  May  sowed 
three  bushels  of  vetches;  strewed  over  them  when  they  made  their 
appearance,  six  bushels  oi  gypsum.  These  were  designed  for  seed, 
but  the  summer  proving  wet  they  continued  growing  all  through  the 
season,  the  seed  at  the  bottom  moulding  and  dropping  out,  while 
they  blossomed  at  the  top  so  that  I  could  not  tell  when  to  cut  them. 
They  stood  till  October;  when  stretched  out  the  plants  were  four  and 
five  feet  long,  but  generally  moulded  below;  when  threshed,  1  only 
got  from  them  three  pecks  of  seed  of  a  very  indifferent  quality. 

"  Upon  comparing  these  experiments  with  the  usual  increase  in 
England,  it  appeared  to  me  that  the  quantity  of  forage  obtained  was 
not  inferior  to  what  a  similar  soil  would  have  produced  there,  and  of 
course  that  our  climate  is  not  unfavourable  to  the  culture,  provided 
we  can  render  them  more  productive  of  seed  ;  which  I  can  hardly 
doubt.  My  error  was,  I  believe,  in  sowing  them  too  thick,  and 
jnanuring  with  gypsum,  which  makes  ewary  plant  on  which  it  ope- 
rates, run  to  haulm.  The  wetness  of  the  season  also  contributed  to 
this  evil,  which  may,  I  hope,  be  corrected  by  a  little  more  experi- 
ence and  care. 

"  Upon  this  head,  however,  we  are  authorised  to  say  little,  but 
that  this  experiment  has  failed,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  production  of 
seed  j  but  that  the  general  health  and  vigour  of  the  plant  gives  us  rea- 


26©  *  ON   THE    COMMON  VETCH. 

son  to  hope  that  future  experiments  may  be  more  succesful.  If  this 
should  be  the  case,  and  we  can  with  facility  raise  our  own  seed,  (its 
common  product  in  England  being  25  to  30  bushels  to  the  acre)  this 
plant  will  be  extremely  useful  to  those  farmers  who  want  a  compe- 
tent proportion  of  meadow,  and  indeed  in  another  point  of  view  to 
every  farmer. 

"  If  cut  for  forage  it  comes  sufficiently  early  to  plough  and  sow 
wheat,  for  which  I  should  think  it  the  best  of  all  preparations.  The 
ground  is  so  well  covered  that  every  weed  is  stifled  ;  the'  air  at  the 
roots  is  stagnant,  and  the  plant  being  of  that  succulent  kind  which 
feeds  much  upon  the  atmosphere,  I  think  it  cannot  fail  to  add  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Mine  appeared  so  mellow  and  free  from  weeds 
when  the  vetches  came  off,  that  I  was  tempted  to  sow  the  piece  with 
lucerne,  which  looked  very  fine  and  promising  when  the  winter  set 
in. 

"  Our  indian  corn  comes  off  too  late  for  wheat,  it  is,  therefore, 
usual  with  us  to  fallow  it  with  a  summer  crop  of  oats  and  a  small 
proportion  of  flax ;  this  I  believe  to  be  bad  husbandry,  as  the  corn 
is  an  exhausting  crop,  so  is  oats,  and  in  this  way  the  ground  is  al- 
ways growing  worse,  and  as  it  is  seldom  rich  enough  to  bear  wheat 
after  oats,  we  generally  summer  fallow  for  wheat,  which  is  rendered 
by  that  means  a  very  expensive  crop.  On  the  contrary,  if  we  fol- 
lowed our  corn  with  vetches,  we  should  be  able  to  put  wheat  in  the 
same  ground  ;  and  if  clover  is  sown  over  the  wheat  in  the  spring7 
and  permitted  to  continue  only  two  years,  and* then  followed  by  corn, 
the  labour  of  farming  will  be  diminished,  and  the  fertility  of  the 
land  increased  by  the  double  operation  of  these  leguminous  crops  on 
the  air,  and  in  the  quantity  of  manure  that  will  be  furnished  by  the 
additional  stock  they  enable  the  farmer  to  keep.  As  this  subject,  so 
well  understood  in  Europe,  has  hardly  been  attended  to  here,  I  will 
state  the  profit  and  loss  of  two  farmers,  each  cultivating  (besides 
their  meadows)  one  hundred  acres  of  arable,  one  in  the  usual  mode 
of  this  country,  and  the  other  by  the  intervention  of  vetches  and 
clover. 

COMMON  AGRICULTURE,  100  ACRES. 

Profit  per  acre. 
20  acres  of  Indian  corn,  35  bushels  at  4s.    -     -     -     -     7  0  0 
20  —  Oats  on  corn  ground  of  the  preceding  year,  20 

bushels  at  2s. 200 

20  —  Summer  fallow, 000 

20—  Wheat  10  bushels,  at  8s.     -     - 4  0  0 

20  —  Wheat  stubble  in  pasture, --020 

100 — Five  years,  yield  per  acre,  £  13  2  0 

Expenses  per  acre  for  Jive  acres. 

Indian  corn,  ploughing,  &c. 200 

Oats,  twice  ploughed,    -*-------  100 

.£3     0    0 


ON    THE    COMMON  VETCH.  261 

Profit  per  acre. 

Brought  forward, -    £3     00 

Harrowing,  and  seed,  and  sowing,  and  harvesting,  -       0  14     0 

Summer  fallow,    ..- 110     0 

Wheat  seed  and  harvesting,      -------       100* 

Rent  on  five  acres  at  4s.  a  year, 100 

Balance  of  profit  on  one  acre  in  five  years,  or  on  five 

acres  in  one  year,    ---------       518     0 

£13     2     0 

Profit  on  farming  by  intervention  of  Fallow  crops  instead  of 
Fallow. 

20  acres  Indian  corn, 700 

do.     Vetches  25  cwt.  at  2s.  6d. 326 

do.     Wheat  12  bushels,      -------  4  1§     0 

do.     Clover  25  cwt.  at  2s.  6d. 3     2     6 

do.     Clover  the  same,    --------  326 

Five  year's  produce  of  one  acre,  or  one  year's  of  five, 

c£21     3     6 

Expenses, 

Indian  corn,  -------------200 

Ploughing  corn-ground  for  vetches,  ------0100 

Seed  three  bushels,  and  sowing,  &c.    -----012     0 

Cutting  and  making  hay,  ---------080 

Vetch  stubble  ploughed  one  for  wheat,  seed,  and 

harvesting,      -----------     1   ]0     0 

12  lb.  clover-seed  and  sowing,    -------     0, 15     0 

Mowing  clover,  paid  by  the  second  crop,  -     -     -     -     0     0     0 

Rent  20s.  or  4s.  a  year,  ---------10     0 

£6  15     0 

To  balance  of  profit  per  acre   in   five  years  or  on 

five  acres  in  one,     ---------     14     86 

<£21     3     6 


"  Thus  while  one  farmer  makes  one  ll.  3s.  5d.  a  year  per  acre, 
<ipon  his  hundred  acres,  clear  of  expense,  the  other  makes  21,  17s. 
4d.;  the  one  gets  little  better  than  100,  while  the  other  gets  nearly 
300  a  year.  In  the  above  statement  I  have  given  one  farmer  credit 
for  two  bushels  of  wheat  more  than  the  other,  since  I  am  persuaded 
that  the  vetch  crop  will  improve  the  ground  more  than  the  difference; 
as  the  dung  given  to  the  corn  will  not  be  exhausted  by  the  interven- 
tion of  an  oat  crop  before  the  wheat  is  sown.  To  this  profit  should 
also  be  added  the  continued  advance  in  the  improvement  of  the  crop 
by  the  one  mode  of  husbandry,  and  the  continued  decrease  by  the 
exhausting  the  land  in  the  other. 


262  ON    THE    COMMON    VETCH. 

"  The  fallow  farmer  has  no  fodder  which  the  rotation  crop  fanner 
does  not  possess,  except  the  straw  of  his  oats,  which  we  will  value 
at  half  a  ton  of  hay  per  acre  ;  he  then  has  from  his  oats  on 

20  acres, -  Tons  10  0  0 

The  fallow  crop  farmer  from  20  acres  vetches,    -  25  0  0 

From  40  acres  clover,      ------.-  50  00 

75  0  0 
Deduct  oat  straw,     10  0  O 

Superiority  to  fallow  crop  farmer,      -     -     -     -     Tons  65  0  0 

"  He  can  thus  winter  at  one  ton  a  head,  65  head  of  cattle  more 
than  the  fallowing  farmer,  and  as  each  of  these  will  afford  at  least  six 
loads  of  dung,  he  will  be  able  to  carry  out  yearly  390  loads  of  dung 
more  than  the  fallowing  farmer:  besides  that  he  has  one  exhausting 
crop  less,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  what  difference  this  must  make  in 
a  few  years  in  the  produce  of  a  farm,  and  how  much  more  it  would  be 
than  I  have  rated  it  at.  We  often  ask  with  astonishment,  how  the 
British  farmer  can  afford  to  pay  a  guinea  an  acre  rent  ?  The  diffi- 
culty is  solved  if  we  examine  the  above  statement;  since  the  differ- 
ence between  fallowing  and  establishing  a  rotation  of  crops  amounts 
to  more  than  the  difference  of  our  rents  and  theirs ;  besides  that, 
their  produce  must  be  reckoned  at  a  higher  price.  1  know  there  are 
some  stiff  soils  on  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  establish  the  rotation 
I  mention;  but  this  should  be  no  argument  against  it  where  the  soil 
will  admit  of  it,  particularly  as  clover  and  vetches  may  be  intro- 
duced with  a  certainty  of  success,  even  if  the  ground  should  be 
naturally  poor,  by  the  addition  of  only  four  bushels  of  gypsum  to 
the  acre,  which  will  indeed  add  l6s.  a  year  to  the  accruable  ex- 
pense; but  it  will  at  the  same  time,  in  all  probability,  add  near  a  ton 
to  the  produce.  I  have  gone  into  this  digression  for  the  benefit  of 
farmers  into  whose  hands  our  publications  may  fall,  and  who  have 
not  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  great  improvements  that 
have  of  late  years  been  made  in  Britain,  by  the  introduction  of  clo- 
ver and  fallow  crop,  instead  of  fallow.  I  would  not  be  understood 
to  confine  my  observations  to  vetches,  which  have  not  been  sufficient- 
ly tried  in  this  country.  [They  should  be  tried  here  for  the  same 
purposes  they  are  used  in  England,  viz.  for  soiling  horses,  as  green 
food  in  the  spring  and  beginning  of  summer,  and,  2dly,  as  a  crop  to 
be  ploughed  in  as  a  manure.  Buck-wheat  is  so  employed  by  good 
farmers  in  Pennsylvania;  Ducket's  plough  should  be  used  for  the 
purpose. — T.  C]  Potatoes,  carrots,  or  peas,  sown  thin,  and  cut 
green  for  provender,  may  answer  the  purpose,  but  above  all,  clover. 
If  this  last  is  the  only  crop  to  be  brought  into  the  rotation,  thp  sys- 
tem must  be  changed  to  the  following  course  :  1st,  Corn,  2d,  Barley 
and  Clover;  3d,  Clover ;  4th,  Clover;  5th,  Wheat  on  one  plough- 
ing ;  by  this  means  a  crop  of  clover  will  be  substituted  to  a  fallow. 
The  wheat  on  a  clover  lay  will  require  but  one  ploughing,  and  will 


SN  RICE.  '263 

fellow  two  improving  crops  The  dung  which  will  be  applied  to  the 
corn,  will  serve  to  bring  forward  the  crop  of  barley,  01  oats,  if  that 
should  be  preferred  to  barley;  clover  will  do  well  with  either. 

"  I  have  now  in  the  ground  one  acre  of  winter  vetches  :  this  looked 
extremely  well  last  December,  but  as  I  have  not  seen  them  since,  I 
know  not  whether  they  will  stand  our  winters:  the  result  therefore  of 
this  experiment  must  make  the  subject  of  a  future  communication." 
Trans.  New-York  Agricultural  Society. 


On  Rice. 

RICE,  or  Oryza,  a  genus  of  plants  consisting,  according  to  Lin- 
naeus,  of  only  one  species,  viz.  the  saliva,  or  Common  Rice;  though 
later  botanists  enumerate  three  or  four  species,  each  of  which  is  divi- 
ded into  two  varieties.  It  is  a  native  of  Ethiopia,  and  the  ir.ast-In- 
dies,  where  it  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent;  as  it  constitutes 
the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants.  They  divide  it  into  six  kinds, 
which,  however,  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  two  varieties, 
namely,  1.  Mountain-rice,  that  grows  on  dry,  elevated,  soils,  ma- 
nured with  ashes ;  but,  as  the  crops  often  fail,  it  is  of  a  higher  price 
than  the  next  sort,  and  little  known  in  Europe  ;  though  its  grains  are 
finer,  whiter,  more  palatable,  and  may  be  longer  preserved.  Late- 
ly, this  variety  has  with  success  been  cultivated  in  Tuscany.  2. 
Marsh-rice,  which  is  the  usual  kind  sown  in  low,  swampl^  districts, 
that  may  be  easily  inundated  by  means  of  sluices.  Of  this  produc- 
tive grain,  large  quantities  are  annually  imported  into  Britain,  and 
other  parts  of  Europe ;  where  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  puddings  and 
other  culinary  preparations. 

The  following  directions  respecting  the  water  culture  of  Rice, 
are  furnished  by  one  of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  that  article, 
in  the  state  of  South-Carolina. 

Begin  to  plant  about  the  25th  March,  trench  shallow  and  wide, 
and  scatter  the  seed  in  the  row ;  make  72  or  75  rows  in  a  task,  and 
sow  two  bushels  to  an  acre. 

1st.  Hoe  about  the  end  of  May,  when  the  rice  is  in  the  fourth 
leaf;  then  flood,  and  clear  the  field  of  thrash.  If  the  planting  be 
late,  and  you  are  likely  to  be  in  grass,  flood  before  hoeing ;  but  hoe- 
ing first  is  preferable.  The  best  depth  to  flood  is  three  or  four  in- 
ches. It  is  a  good  mark  to  see  the  tops  of  the  rice  just  out  of  the 
water:  the  deep  places  are  not  to  be  regarded ;  the  rice  will  grow 
through  in  three  or  four  days.  Observe  to  make  a  notch  on  the 
frame  of  the  trunk,  when  the  water  is  at  a  proper  depth:  if  the 
yains  raise  the  water  above  the  notch,  or  it  leaks  out,  add,  or  let  off 
accordingly.     This  is  done  by  putting  a  small  stick  in  the  door  of 


264  ON   KiCE. 

the  trunk,  about  an  inch  in  diameter;  if  scum  or  froth  appear  in 
eight  or  ten  days,  freshen  the  water,  take  off  the  trunk  doors,  run 
off  the  water  with  one  ebb,  and  take  in  the  next  flood:  then  regulate 
as  before.  Keep  the  water  on  about  fifteen  or  seventeen  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  weather;  that  is,  if  a  hot  sun  fifteen  days, 
if  cool  and  cloudy,  seventeen  days,  counting  from  the  -day  the  field 
is  flooded  :  then  leak  off  with  a  small  stick  for  two  days,  then  run 
off  the  whole,  and  keep  the  field  dry.  In  four  or  five  days  after, 
hoe  the  second  time,  stir  the  ground  whether  clean  or  not,  and  comb 
up  the  fallen  rice  with  the  fingers.  Keep  dry  and  hoe  through  the 
field.  Hoe  the  third  time  and  pick  clean.  This  will  be  about  the  be. 
ginning  of  July.  Then  flood  as  you  hoe.  Let  the  water  be  the  same 
depth  as  before.  If  any  grass  has  escaped,  it  must  be  picked  in  the 
water  after  it  shoots  out.  This  is  called  the  fourth  hoeing,  but  the 
hoe  is  never  used  except  for  some  high  places  or  to  clean  the  dams. 
If  the  rice  is  flaggy  and  likely  to  lodge,  flood  deep  to  support  it,  and 
keep  it  on  until  fit  to  harvest. 

For  a  particular  account  of  the  introduction  of  rice  into  South- 
Carolina,  and  of  the  mode  of  cleaning  it,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
"  Drayton's  View  of  South-Carolina." 

Mr.  Bordley  informs  us  that  he  raised  rice  many  years  since,  in 
the  dry  sandy  soil  of  Annapolis  ;  and  even  "in  a  clay  loam  or  upland 
in  Talbot,  Maryland,  the  produce  whereof  was  good  in  quality  and 
quantity."  The  experiment  might  be  tried  in  New  Jersey,  in  shel- 
tered situations,  with  greater  prospect  of  success.  The  time  of  sow- 
ing is  early  in  the  spring  after  frost. 

A  friend  concerned  in  rice  planting  in  South-Carolina,  was  in 
Amsterdam  in  1784,  and  examined  all  the  various  specimens  of  rice 
to  be  found  in  that  great  emporium  of  commerce.  He  saw  the  rice 
of  every  country,  in  which  it  was  cultivated,  except  that  of  Brazil, 
and  was  gratified  by  finding  that  the  American  rice  was  superior  in 
size  and  whiteness  to  all  he  had  an  oportunity  of  seeing. 

Rice  is,  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Cullen,  preferable  to  all  other  grain, 
both  for  its  abundant  produce,  and  the  large  proportion  of  nutriment  it 
affords.  Hence,  different  methods  have  been  devised,  of  cooking  or 
dressing  it  in  the  most  economical  manner.  Thus,  if  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  rice  be  tied  loosely  in  a  cloth  capable  of  holding  five  times 
that  quantity,  and  then  slowly  boiled,  it  will  produce  above  a  pound 
of  solid  food;  which,  eaten  with  sugar,  or  boiled  milk,  forms  a  very 
palatable  dish.  And,  if  an  egg,  together  with  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of 
milk,  a  small  quantity  of  sugar,  and  grated  nutmeg,  be  added,  it  will 
afford  a  more  agreeable  pudding  than  those  prepared  either  of  wheaten 
flour,  or  bread.  One  of  the  best  preparations  of  this  grain,  how- 
ever, especially  for  invalids,  is  its  mucilage  ov jelly;  which  may  be 
obtained  by  boiling  two  ounces  of  fine  rice-flour,  with  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  lump  sugar,  in  a  pint  of  water,  till  it  becomes  an  uniform 
gelatinous  mass:  on  being  strained  through  a  cloth,  and  suffered  to 
cool,  it  constitutes  a  salubrious  and  nourishing  food. 

[To  boil  rice;  put  it  in  very  clear  cold  water;  after  washing  it 
well,  let  simmer  and  boil  gently,  till  it  has  imbibed  as  much  water  as 
if  will  take  up:  pour  it  on  a  cullender,  let  all  the  water  drain  away, 


©N  RICE.  265^ 

wash  it  by  pouring  water  on  it,  return  it  to  the  pot,  and  let  it  steam 
till  it  is  dry.  Rice  .nay  be  made  to  imbibe  any  nutritious  fluid.  It  is 
excellent,  with  aisins,  sugar,  sweetmeats,  &c.  It  is  the  cheapest 
nutriment  known  :  .it  contains  96  per  cent,  farina. — T.   C.J 

Rice  also  forms  an  excellent  ingredient  in  preparing  Bread:  and, 
as  we  hive  already  given  a  concise  account  of  the  methods  in  which 
it  may  be  advantageously  used,  we  shall  now  subjoin  two  recipes,  by 
way  of  supplement.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  directed  in  the  first  vol. 
of  the  Report  of  the  Society  for  increasing  the  Comforts  of  the 
Po  >/*,  to  boil  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  rice  till  it  become  perfectly 
soft:  when  it  should  be  drained  on  the  back  of  a  sieve  In  a  cold 
state,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  flour,  a  tea- 
cupful  of  yeast,  a  si  miliar  portion  of  milk  and  a  small  spoonful  of 
sait.  This  composition  should  be  suffered  to  stand  for  three  hours, 
at  the  expiration  of  *  which  it  must  be  kneaded,  and  rolled  in  a  little 
flour,  so  as  to  render  the  outside  sufficiently  dry  to  be  put  into  the 
oven.  In  an  hour  and  a  quarter  it  will  be  baked,  and  produce  t  lb. 
14  >z.  of  good  white  bread;  which,  however,  ought  not  to  be  eaten 
till  lit  has  been  kept  48  hours. 

In  a  late  volume  of  the  Journal  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres,  et  des 
Arts,  we  meet  with  an  essay  on  making  bread  from  rice  alone. 
The  first  step  directed  to  be  taken,  is  the  reduction  of  the  rice  into 
flour,  by  grinding  it  in  a  mill;  though,  if  such  machine  cannot  be 
procured,  it  may  be  effected  in  the  following  manner:  Let  a  certain 
quantity  of  water  be  heated  in  a  saucepan,  or  other  vessel ;  when  it 
nearly  boils,  the  rice  must  be  thrown  into  it,  and  the  whole  taken  off 
the  fire,  closely  covered,  and  the  grain  suffered  to  macerate  for 
twelve  hours.  The  water  is  then  to  be  poured  off;  and,  when  the 
rice  is  drained,  and  completely  dried,  it  must  be  pulverised  (it  is  not 
stated  by  what  means)  and  passed  through  a  very  fine  siev?. 

The  grain  being  thus  converted  into  flour,  a  sufficient  quantity  is 
to  be  put  into  the  kneading-trough:  at  the  same  time,  a. little  rice 
should  be  separately  boiled  in  water,  till  a  thick  and  glutinous  decoc- 
tion be  obtained.  While  this  liquor  is  still  lukewarm,  it  ought  to  be 
poured  on  the  i ice-flour,  and  both  should  be  well  kneaded  together,  with 
a  proper  quantity  of  leaven,  or  of  yeast,  and  also  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  flour;  in  order  to  impart  to  the  whole  a  greater  degree  of 
consistence.  Next,  the  dough  is  to  be  covered  with  warm  cloths; 
and,  when  it  is  sufficiently  risen  (the  oven  having  been  heated  during 
that  interval,)  it  should  be  poured  into  a  tin  stew-pan,  furnished, 
with  a  long  handle,  and  covered  with  a  sheet  of  paper,  or  with  a  cab- 
bage-leaf. The  pan  is  then  pushed  forward  into  that  part  of  the  oven 
where  it  is  intended  to  be  baked,  and  expeditiously  inverted.  A 
proper  degree  of  heat  will  prevent  the  paste  from  spreading,  and 
cause  it  to  retain  the  form  of  the  vessel.  In  this  manner?  pure  rice-* 
bread  may  be  made ;  which,  when  drawn  out  of  the  oven,  is  said  to 
acquire  a  fine  yellow  colour,  similar  to  that  of  pastry  glazed  with 
the  yolks  of  eggs.  It  is  very  wholesome  and  agreeable,  but  looses 
its  good  taste  if  it  be  suffered  to  become  stale. 

With  respect  to  the  properties  of  rice,  we  shall  only  observe,  that 
«  is  uncommonly  nutritive,  and  may  with  great  benefit  be  taken  in 

u 


266'  ON   RICE. 

diarrhoeas,  dysenteries,  and  similar  disorders.  In  some  persons  it 
is  apt  to  produce  flatulency  and  costiveness ;  hence  it  will,  in  general, 
be  advisable  to  eat  this  grain  with  the  addition  of  a  little  cinnamon, 
caraway,  or  similar  spices,  to  prevent  these  effects ;  especiall)  in 
those  whose  digestion  is  slow,  or  who  are  naturally  of  phlegmatic  habits. 

[Farina  by  oxygeneation  is  convertible  into  sugar  ;  Vauquelin 
could  not  however  convert  rice  into  saccharine  matter.  Mr.  Alfred 
Dupont,  of  Wilmington  Delaware,  succeeded  in  my  laboratory  un- 
der my  direction  :  not  more  than  4  per  cent,  of  residum  was  obtain- 
ed. Might  not  not  a  portion  of  ground  rice,  be  added  to  rye  in  dis- 
tilling for  whiskey  ? — T.  C.J 

Rice  is  so  important  an  article,  that  we  add  the  following  account : 

The  rice  plant  has  an  erect,  simple,  round,  and  jointed  stem.  Its 
leaves  are  narrow  and  pointed  ;  and  its  flowers  appear  in  a  kind  of 
bunch  at  the  extremity,  somewhat  resembling,  but  more  compact, 
than  an  ear  of  oats. 

It  is  said  that  America  is  indebted  for  this  grain  to  a  small  bag  of  it 
which  was  formerly  given  as  a  present  from  a  Mr.  Dubois,  treasurer 
of  the  Last-India  company,  to  a  Carolina  merchant 

A  wet  and  morassy  soil  and  hot  climate  appear  in  general  neces- 
sary to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  parts  of  the  farms  or  planta- 
tions in  which  it  is  grown  are  usually  so  situated  as  to  admit  of  being 
flooded  ;  and  in  many  places  reservoirs  of  water  formed  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  reservoirs  have  sluices  by  which  the  rice  fields  may  be 
inundated  at  pleasure.  In  reaping  the  crop  the  laborers  generally 
work  knee  deep  in  water  and  mud;  and  as  the  rice  is  cut,  the 
sheaves  are  put  on  drays,  which  follow  the  reapers,  and  are  thus 
carried  out  to  be  spread  on  dry  ground.  The  rice  thus  produced 
has  the  name  of  marsh-rice,  and  is  that  which  is  chiefly  exported  to 
Europe. 

In  some  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  East-Indies  rice  is  culti- 
vated on  the  sides  of  hills,  where  it  can  only  be  watered  by  rain.  It 
is  sown,  however,  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy,  and  reaped  in  the 
beginning  of  the  dry  season ;  so  that,  in  fact,  it  has  nearly  all  the 
advantages  of  being  watered  which  the  marsh-rice  possesses.  This 
kind  is  denominated  paddy  gunung,  or  mountain-rice,  and  has  been 
cultivated  with  success  in  Tuscany.  Its  grains  are  whiter,  finer, 
and  more  palatable  than  those  of  the  marsh-rice. 

After  the  harvesting  of  rice,  the  next  process  is  to  free  the  grains 
from  the  husk  in  which  they  are  enveloped.  There  are  several  ways 
of  doing  this.  In  some  places  they  are  pounded  in  large  mortars, 
and  afteruards  winnowed.  In  others  large  cylindrical  pestles  are 
lifted  by  a  wheel  worked  by  oxen,  between  which  one  person  sits 
and  pushes  forward  the  rice  to  be  beaten,  whilst  another  carries  it  off' 
to  be  winnowed,  and  supplies  fresh  parcels.  The  inhabitants  of 
several  parts  of  the  East  throw  it  into  hot  water,  by  which  the  grains 
are  slightly  swelled,  and  thus  burst  through  the  husk  In  the  Island 
of  Ceylon,  and  in  some  parts  of  this  country,  a  hollow  place  about 
a  foot  in  depth  and  nine  or  ten  yards  in  diameter  is  dug  in  the  ground- 
This  is  filled  with  corn,  which  is  trodden  by  oxen  driven  round  it 
until  the  grain  is  cleared.     The  Sacred  and  other  writings  inform  us 


ON  RICE.  2&1 

that  this  was  the  mode  which  the  ancients  adopted  for  the  same  pur- 
pose with  other  species  of  grain.  In  the  East-Indies  the  general  ap- 
pelation  of  rice  is  paddy. 

No  kind  of  grain  is  so  generally  adopted  for  food  in  hot  climates 
as  rice.  The  inhabitants  of  many  parts  of  the  East  subsist  almost 
wholly  upon  it ;  and  large  quantities  are  annually  imported  into  Eu- 
rope, where  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  puddings  and  numerous  other 
culinary  preparations  In  a  scarcity  of  other  grain  rice  may  be  used 
with  considerable  advantage  as  an  ingredient  in  bread  Indeed,  on 
account  of  its  cheapness,  it  claims  attention  as  a  general  article  of 
sustenance  for  the  poorer  classes  of  society ;  since  it  is  well  known 
that  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  rice  slowly  boiled,  will  yield  more  than 
a  pound  of  solid  and  nutritive  food.  For  the  fattening  of  poultry 
boiled  rice  has  been  adopted  with  success,  and  would  be  more  gene- 
rally used  than  it  is,  were  in  not  for  an  unfounded  and  very  extraor- 
dinary notion  that  it  tends  to  make  them  blind 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East  draw  from  rice  a  vinous  -liquor  ^ 
which  is  more  intoxicating  than  the  strongest  wine,  and  an  ar- 
dent spirit  called  arrack  is  also  made  from  it.  The  latter  is  chiefly 
manufactured  at  Batavia  and  at  Goa  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  ;  and  is 
said  to  be  distilled  from  s  mixture  of  the  wort  or  infusion  of  rice  and 
of  toddy,  or  the  juice  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  to  which  other  ingre« 
fiUentSj  and  particularly  spices^  are  added. 


* 


268  AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 


^EXTRACT  FROM  RIGBy's  AGRICULTURE  OP  ITAtY^j 


Cultivation  of  a  Farm* 

&UT  it  is  now  time  to  draw  your  attention  to  the  practical  cultiva;- 
lion  of  the  farm,  which  I  purpose  to  describe  to  you. 

There  are  sixty  acres,  of  which  fifteen  are  meadow :  the  rest  is  ara- 
ble, and  principally  sown  with  grain ;  and  nearly  ten  acres  of  these 
are  sown  with  clover.  This  crop,  in  addition  to  the  hay,  feeds  eight 
oxen  and  thirteen  cows,  or  young  stock,  of  which  two  are  young  bulls, 
and  an  ordinary  horse,  wholly  employed  in  going  to  market  and 
threshing  corn ;  in  all  twenty  two  heads  of  cattle,  about  one  to  each 
acre  of  feed,  including  grass  and  clover.  The  horned  cattle  are  of 
the  breed  of  Querci  which  abound  throughout  the  south  of  France, 
Dauphiny,  and  Savoy.  They  are  taller,  and  have  shorter  horns,  but 
they  have  the  same  characteristic  marks,  the  seme  clear  fawn  colored 
hair,  the  same  difference  in  figure  between  the  male  and  female;  the 
cow  being  small,  and  of  an  ugly  shape,  while  the  ox  is  large  and  mus- 
cular, but  still  not  well  formed. 

Though  there  is  a  very  large  quantity  of  cattle  in  Piedmont,  the 
farmers  have  not  learned,  after  the  example  of  the  Milanese,  to  derive 
much  advantage  from  their  milk.  Their  cows  are  not  good  milkers  : 
the  rearing  and  fatting  of  their  stock,  are,  therefore,  more  estimated. 
In  this  farm  a  pair  of  oxen  is,  thus,  brought  up  every  year :  in  the  third 
year  they  begin  to  plough  with  them  at  light  work;  and  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  year  they  do  the  strongest  work :  at  five  years  old  they  are 
fatted,  and  sometimes  sell  from  a  thousand  to  eleven  hundred  francs, 
and  this  proves  one  of  the  farmer's  greatest  profits  ;  they  are  fatted  with 
poutitre,*  and  finish  with  maize  flour.  For  the  cultivation,  in  short,  of 
forty -five  acres,  two  pair  of  oxen,  four  or  five  years  old,  are  employed 
to  do  the  work  of  two  ploughs;  a  pair  of  three  years  old,  to  do  lighter 
work,  and  two  pair  of  steers,  and  a  strong  horse  which  threshes  the 
corn  and  goes  to  market. 

Each  plough  thus  works  thirty-two  acres  in  the  season.  You  have 
yourself,  some  years  ago,  so  well  described  the  excellent  Piedmont 

*  Pouture.  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  this  word:  it  is 
toot  to  be  found  in  any  French  Dictionary  1  have  had  access  to;  there  is  no  word 
resembling  it  in  Barreti's  Italian  Dictionary,  nor  could  an  intelligent  native  of 
France,  and  who  is  a  perfect  master  of  the  language,  discover  its  signification. 


AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 


269 


jilough,  and  the  skill  with  which  the  active  laborers  manage  it,  that  it 
would  be  superfluous  to  repeat  it  here.  I  cannot,  however,  avoid 
mentioning  to  you  the  method  they  have  acquired  ol  executing,  with 
a  single  plough,  all  the  work  necessary  for  putting  in  the  grain  and 
earthing  up  the  plants,  for  which,  in  England,  so  many  implements 
have  been  invented.  Nothing  can  be  more  perfect  or  neater  than  the 
hoeing  and  moulding  up  the  maize,  when  in  full  growth,  by  a  single 
plough,  with  a  pair  of  oxen,  without  injury  to  a  single  plant,  while  all 
the  weeds  are  effectually  destroyed.  1  can  also,  assure  you  that  the 
potatoes,  which  I  so  much  admired  at  Hoswyl,  were  not  better  man- 
aged than  a  field  of  twenty  acres  which  1  examined  at  Mandna  and 
which  were  cultivated  by  the  plough  only. 

The  course  of  husbandry  is  usually  of  four  years. 
First  year    -    -    -     Maize,  with  manure. 
French  beans. 
Hemp. 
Second  year      -     -     Wheat. 
Third  year        -     -     Clover,  ploughed  up  after  the  first  mowing, 

and  left  fallow. 
Fourth  year      -     -     Wheat. 

This  system  may  be  considered  among  the  most  productive,  and 
the  continued  fertility  of  the  soil,  notwithstanding  the  repeated  corn 
crops,  proves  that  it  may  be  persevered  in  unremittingly.  This  is, 
however,  much  owing  to  the  abundance  of  manure  produced  by  mow- 
ing the  grass  lands  three  times  in  the  year,  and  which  is  wholly  con- 
sumed on   the  arable  land. 

In  this  series  to  maize  is  considered  as  a  preparatory  crop  ;  all  the 
manure  is  reserved  fork,  and  the  hoeing  and  moulding  up  the  earth 
keep  the  land  perfectly  clean.  Nothing  can  be  so  excellent  as  the 
crop  which  preceds  and  that  which  follows  it.  The  plants  arranged 
in  right  lines,  and  majestically  displaying  their  yellow  flowers,  add  in- 
discribably,  to  the  beauty  of  the  fields  of  Italy. 

The  produce  of  maize  is  considerable  j  and  it  contributes  more 
than  any  other  article  to  the  maintenance  of  almost  the  whole  coun- 
try population  of  Piedmont,  who  eat  it  under  a  variety  of  forms. 
In  cultivating  it,  they  mix  a  considerable  number  of  French  beans, 
of  different  sorts,  and  a  quantity  of  hemp. 

The  crop  of  maize  is  harvested  in  September,  and  the  land  imme- 
diately prepared  for  putting  in  wheat.  It  is  sown  on  narrow  ridges, 
and  earthed  over  by  the  plough,  the  land  being  clean,  and  having 
been  manured  in  the  spring.  No  further  attention  is  paid  to  it  until 
harvest,  which  takes  place  from  the  beginning  of  July. 

As  soon  as  the  corn  is  dry,  by  being  placed  in  heaps  under  the 
porticos  of  the  court,  and  in  the  hot  month  of  August,  it  is  threshed 
on  the  floor  prepared  at  the  lower  part  of  the  court.  Instead  of  get- 
ting it  out  by  a  number  of  miserable  horses,  as  is  the  wretched  practice 
in  Provence,  or  leaving  it  for  a  year  to  be  devoured  by  mice,  as  is 
the  absurd  custom  at  Paris;  it  is  threshed  by  a  cylinder,  drawn  by  a 
horse,  and  guided  by  a  boy,  while  the  laborers  turn  over  the  straw 
with  forks.  This  process  lasts  nearly  a  fortnight  $  it  is  yet  quick 
and  econimical,  and  completely  gets  out  the  grain. 


1  '^  m 


210  AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 

The  clover  is  sown  in  the  spring,  on  the  wheat :  the  quick  vegeta- 
tion of  Italy  brings  it  into  flower  the  first  autumn,  and  it  affords  a 
good  cut  in  October;  after  which  it  serves  with  the  meadows  for  au- 
tumnal feed.  In  the  spring  it  assumes  a  fresh  verdure,  grows  rapidly, 
and  is  mown  once,  but  the  intense  heat  not  admitting  a  second  cut,  it 
is  immediately  ploughed  in,  and  the  land  has  the  benefit  of  a  fallow, 
with  three  ploughings  before  the  wheat  is  again  sown. 

Thus  in  the  course  of  four  years,  there  are  three  crops  for  the  sup- 
port of  man:  one  fallow  and  two  crops  for  the  cattle.  To  these 
must  be  added  the  crop  of  hemp,  which  is  sometimes  considerable  ; 
that  of  silk,  wine,  of  vegetables,  of  fruit,  the  produce  of  the  farm  yard, 
and  the  profit  of  rearing  and  fatting  stock. 

From  these  details  it  appears  that  a  farm  of  sixty  acres  supports  a 
familv  of  eight  or  nine  persons ;  that  it  maintains  twenty-two  heads  of 
cattle,  of  which  two  oxen,  a  cow,  and  two  pigs,  are  fatted  every  year ; 
that  the  produce  of  silk  amounts,  at  least,  to  twenty-five  Louis  d'ors ; 
that  more  wine  is  made  than  the  consumption  takes  off;  that  the  crops 
of  maize  and  French  beans  almost  maintain  the  laborers ;  and  that 
nearly  the  whole  crops  of  corn  may  be  carried  to  market,  as  well  as  a 
considerable  quantity  of  the  inferior  articles  of  provision.  It  will 
hence  be  obvious,  that  in  no  part  of  the  world  are  the  economy  and 
management  of  the  land  better  understood  than  in  Piedmont,  and  this 
explains  the  phenomenon  of  its  great  population,  and  immense  export 
of  provisions.* 

It  is  well  known  that  the  daries,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Po,  pro- 
duce the  Parmesan  cheeses;  the  consumption  of  which  is  so  great 
all  over  Italy.  These  meadows  are  the  most  fertile  in  the  world ; 
being  watered,  they  produce  three,  and  sometimes  four  crops  of  hay- 
in  a  season.  But  subsivided  into  an  infinite  number  of  parcels,  and 
occupied  by  a  great  number  of  individuals,  there  are  few  who  can 
singly  support  a  dairy,  because  the  making  of  cheese  requires  a 
quantity  of  milk,  which  is  the  produce  of,  at  least,  fifty  cows.  To 
effect  this  the  Lombards  have,  for  some  time,  formed  societies 
among  their  neighbours,  to  make  their  cheese  in  common.  •  Twice  a 
day,  the  milk  of  fifty  or  sixty  cows  belonging  to  the  Society,  is  sent 
to  the  principal  house,  where  the  dairy  man  takes  an  account  of  each 
person's  proportion ;  he  also  keeps  an  account  current  with  each, 
which  is  settled  every  six  months,  and  discharged  by  a  proportionate 
share  of  cheese. 

This  excellent  method  has  been  adopted  in  Switzerland,  and  has 
been  described,  in  detail,  in  an  ingenious  work  published  in  Geneva, 
by  Mr.  Charles  Lulling  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  exten- 
sively known,  as  there  are  few  situations  in  which  it  might  not  be 
advantageously  adopted. 

*  The  part  of  the  estate  which  borders  on  the  canal,  is  ahomestall  meadow, 
watered  by  irrigation,  and  in  which  vegetation  is  so  vigorous  that  it  is  mowed 
three  times  in  a  season.  The  plants  which  grow  in  it  are,  avena  elatior,  oat 
grass,  meadow  fox-tail,  ray  grass,  plantain,  and  different  trefoils. 

t  This  work,  entitled  Des  Associations  rurales  connues  on  bwisse  sous  le 
!Nom  de  Fruiti£res?  may  be  had  at  Geneva  and  Paris  of  J.  J.  Paschou<L 


AGRICULTURE    IN   ITALY.  271 

The  breed  of  horned  cattle  is  also  different  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Placenza  ;  we  no  longer  seethe  large  fawn-coloured  oxen,  with  short 
horns,  as  in  Piedmont;  but  the  fields  are  covered  with  beautiful  *:ows, 
of  grey-slate  colour,  with  slender  legs,  cylindrical  carcase,  bright 
eyes,  and  long  well  turned  horns.  This  breed  is  evidently  produced 
by  a  continued  cross  between  the  Hungarian  and  that  of  the  small 
Cantons  in  Switzerland. 

This  admirable  Hungarian  race  is  found,  without  mixture,  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  and  they  produce  the  best  oxen  existing,  but  the 
cows  are  bad  milkers :  and  the  Lombards,  for  a  long  while,  have 
found  the  necessity  of  crossing  them,  to  remedy  this  fault,  so  as  to 
obtain  from  their  pastures  all  they  are  capable  of  producing.  Thus, 
from  a  period,  the  date  of  which  is  not  ascertained,  two  thousand 
cows  pass  annually  over  Mont  St  Gothard,  and  are  distributed 
through  Lombardy,  bringing  a  principle  of  amelioration  which  pre- 
serves, in  the  breeds  of  Italy,  all  the  qualities  which  render  them  val- 
uable. 

These  Swiss  cows  are  not,  themselves,  of  the  Berne  breed,  known 
in  France,  and  distinguished  by  their  bright  colours,  and  good  shapes. 
Those  of  the  smaller  Cantons,  judging  by  their  dull  colour,  their  long 
horns,  and  their  slender  shapes,  appeared  to  me  to  be  derived  from 
the  Hungarian  breed,  improved  by  the  climate,  the  food,  and  the  care 
taken  of  them.  These  mix  well,  therefore,  with  the  Italian  breed, 
having  both  the  same  origin. 

The  farms  are  let,  as  in  Piedmont,  on  leases,  at  half  the  produce; 
but  the  cultivation  is  somewhat  different.  The  pastures  include  a 
larger  share;  and  maize,  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land,  gives 
way  to  hemp  and  winter  beans.  The  course  of  husbandry  is  nearly 
as  follows : 

First  year    -    -    -     r'1aize  and  hemp — manured. 

Second    -     -    -     -     Wheat. 

Third      -     -     -     -     Winter  beans. 

Fourth    -     -     -     -     Wheat — manured. 

Fifth       -    -     -    -     Clover  ploughed  in  after  once  mowing. 

Sixth       -     -     -     -     Wheat. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Parma  they  have  begun  to  cultivate  tobac  - 
co,  and  with  considerable  success  ;  and  it  is  sown  the  first  year  in- 
stead of  maize  and  hemp. 

This  course  is  still  more  productive  than  that  of  Piedment;  but  the 
soil  is  richer,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  dairies,  more  highly  manur- 
ed ;  for  it  admits  of  being  manured  every  third  year,  while  in  Pied- 
mont it  is  only  once  in  four  years. 

I  shall  enlarge  no  further  on  this  admirable  succession  of  culture, 
which  gives  four  corn  crops  in  six  years,  one  of  hemp,  and  one  of 
food  for  cattle.  This  quick  succession,  it  may  be  observed,  is  so 
well  arranged,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is,  at  no  time,  deteriora- 
ted, whde  it  admits  the  requisite  preparatives,  and  the  cleaning  the 
land,  by  hoeing  at  regular  intervals. 

The  winter  beans  seem  the  only  crop  meriting  particular  notice. 
Within  a  few  years  they  have  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
neighborhood  of  Geneva  ;  that  is  to  say,  into  a  climate  where  the 


*272  AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 

winters  are  more  severe.  The  beans. endure  them  without  injury, 
may  be  introduced  into  the  northern  countries,  where  they  may  be- 
come a  valuable  article  in  agriculture  :  being  well  adapted  to  fill  up 
vacant  spots  in  various  crops. 

The  winter  bean  resembles  the  spring  bean,  in  plant,  flower,  and 
seed.  It  is  sown  in  the  beginning  of  September,  and  it  must  acquire 
strength  in  the  autumn  to  support  the  severity  of  the  winter.  The 
stem  withers  and  dies  under  the  snow,  and  during  frost;  but  early  in 
the  spring  several  new  stems  shoot  from  the  bottom,  which  flower  in 
May,  and  the  seeds  ripen  in  July. 

The  culture  is  very  simple  ;  after  a  manured  crop  of  wheat,  the 
earth  is  turned  in  by  a  single  ploughing,  and  moulder  by  exposure 
to  the  weather.  The  beans  are  put  into  the  ground  early  in  Sep- 
tember, either  sown  broad  cast  and  harrowed,  ploughed  in,  or  drill- 
ed in  lines,  which  admits  of  their  being  horse  hoed  in  the  spring, 
otherwise  they  must  be  hand  hoed  in  April. 

The  crop  being  harvested  in  July,  there  is  time  to  prepare  the  land 
for  wheat,  which  follows  it,  and  usually  succeeds  well. 

This  culture,  adapted  to  open  and  clayey  soils  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  roots,  accord  well  with  the  different  periods  of  ploughing 
and  sowing,  and  keeps  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  includes  every 
desirable  circumstance,  and  I  have  no  doubt  will  extend  rapidly. 

Such  is  the  slight  sketch  I  have  given  you  of  the  agriculture  and 
crops  of  that  part  of  Lombardy,  which  extends  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  Po,  that  is  to  say,  of  a  part  of  the  first  region  of  agriculture, 
which  I  pointed  out  in  ray  first  letter. 

This  culture,  it  would  seem,  is  principally  directed  to  the  produc- 
tion of  food,  and,  except  silk  and  hemp,  there  are  no  articles  for  the 
manufacture.  The  result  of  this  abundant  production  of  food,  is  an 
immense  population  ;  no  part  of  which  is  employed  in  manufacture, 
because  they  are  not  possessed  of  the  necessary  material. 

In  going  to  Lodi,  in  the  road  to  Cremona,  we  pass  over  the  most 
beautiful  part  of  the  Milanese.  The  soil  is  so  fertile  and  so  well  wa- 
tered in  this  province,  which  bears  the  name  of  Lodesan,  that  they 
have  relinquished  the  growth  of  corn  for  that  of  the  indigenous  plants 
which  the  land  produces  spontaneously.  These  meadows,  constant- 
ly irrigated,  are  mowed,  and  spring  again  four  times  in  the  same  year; 
their  produce  is  superior  to  the  richest  corn,  for  I  never  saw  grass  so 
thick  and  so  high  It  is  composed  of  the  common  grases,  of  trefoils, 
of  plants  with  large  leaves,  and  a  great  many  ranunculuses,  whose 
yellow  flowers  spread  a  peculiar  brilliancy  over  the  tint  of  the  fields. 
An  immense  number  of  cows  feed  on  this  herbage;  during  the  sum- 
mer they  are  fed  in  the  stables,  on  the  produce  of  two  crops  cut  green; 
the  others  are  made  into  hay  for  the  winter  food  ;  m  autumn  they  are 
allowed  to  feed  on  the  last  growth  in  the  season. 

The  farms  in  the  Milanese  are  not  large.  Iu  a  soil  so  productive 
and  so  dear,  the  land  is  necessarily  much  divided,  but  they  are  more 
extensive  than  in  Tuscany ;  there  are  many  farms  from  fifty  to  a  hun- 
dred acres;  because  grass  culture  requires  less  labour  and  care  than 
fruit,  garden,  or  corn  crops.  They  require  also  less  capital,  and  the 
produce  is  not  so  liable  to  accidents  ;  and  for  this  reason  the  pro* 
prietors  and  metayers  in  the  Lodesan  are  equally  enriched. 


AGRICULTURE    IN   ITALY,  278 

One  of  the  principal  sources  of  expenditure,  in  their  culture,  is  the 
annual  purchase  of  cattle,  for  by  an  inexplicable  singularity  of  nature, 
the  cows  of  the  third  generation  lose  their  quality  of  good  milkers,  in 
the  midst  of  the  most  nourishing  food.  It  is  necessary,  every  year,  to 
obtain  some  from  Switzerland.  All  the  horses  employed  in  the  coun- 
try come,  also,  from  the  mountains  of  Helvetia.  The  capital  of  the 
flocks  belongs  to  the  proprietors,  but  they  are  maintained  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  metayer. 

The  soil  of  the  whole  country  is  divided  into  parcels  of  two  or  three 
acres,  on  account  of  their  being  near  the  canals,  which  separate 
them:  and  by  the  simple  lowering  of  the  sluices,  the  whole  land, 
which  is  perfectly  level,  may  he  inundated.  These  frequent  irriga- 
tions would  deteriorate  the  grass,  if  it  were  not  refreshed  by  a  thick 
coat  of  manure  every  three  years,  while  it  remains  in  pasture.  In 
*  spite  of  this  powerful  means  of  amelioration,  the  meadows  will  deteri- 
orate in  course  of  time.  The  umbelliferous  plants,  the  angelicas  and 
ranunculases,  flourish  at  the  expense  of  the  trefoils  and  the  grasses. 
The  soil  is  no  longer  irrigated ;  it  is  ploughed  and  cleaned  in  autumn, 
to  sow  hemp  upon  it  the  following  spring.  This  is  the  only  way  in 
which  the  weeds,  in  this  land,  can  be  extirpated.  The  stems  of  the 
hemp  attain  a  prodigious  height,  and  when  they  are  taken  off,  in  or- 
der to  take  the  advantage  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  they  plant  vegeta- 
bles in  autumn,  to  prepare  it  for  sowing  oats  upon  it  in  the  spring. 
The  straw  of  these  oats  grows  to  six  or  seven  feet  high,  and  moves  in 
waves  from  the  influence  of  the  wind  ;  wheat  is  lastly  sown  after  the 
oats,  under  the  expectation  that  the  soil,  weakened  by  the  preceding 
crops,  would  not  make  it  too  vigorous.  Maize  is  usually  planted 
the  following  spring  5  and  a  second  crop  of  wheat  succeeds  it,  and 
finishes  the  course. 

The  land  is  then  left  to  itself,  and  a  crop  of  grass  immediately 
springs  up  without  any  seeds  being  sown.  In  the  winter  it  is  ma- 
nured, and  the  new  meadow  is  thus,  again,  spontaneously  formed. 
As  soon  as  the  new  turf  is  become  diick,  the  sluices  are  opened,  and 
it  is  irrigated  with  the  water  of  the  adjoining  canal. 

The  sa^le  meadow  commonly  continues  fifteen  years,  and  the 
course  of  the  crops  five  only.  The  culture  of  the  Milanese  includes 
thus  twenty  years,  in  the  following  series : 

First  year    -    -     Hemp,  followed  by  vegetables. 

Second    -    -    -     Oats. 

Third     -    -    -    Wheat,  followed  by  vegetables. 

Fourth    -    -     -     Maize. 

Fifth-    -    -    -    Wheat. 
Fifteen  years  natural  grass,  manured  every  third  year,  and  mown 
1  our  times  a  year. 

In  these  twenty  years  sixty-seven  crops  are  produced  on  the  same 
land.  Sixty-one  for  the  use  of  cattle,  five  for  the  food  of  man,  and 
one  only  for  his  clothing.  I  should  think  there  is  not  a  country  on 
the  globe  which  gives  such  a  proportion  of  agricultural  crops. 

To  obtain  them,  the  land  is,  however,  manured  only  five  times 
in  twenty  years,  but  this  is  done  largely  and  contrary  to  the  univer- 
sal practice;  the  manure  is  solely  applied  to  the  meadows,  and 


274  AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 

never  to  the  ploughed  land.  This  method  forms  the  distinctive  mark 
of  this  peculiar  economy,  and  can  be  attributed  only  to  the  supera^ 
bundant  fertility  of  this  rich  province. 

In  a  farm,  where  I  stopped,  near  Marignano,  of  a  hundred  acres, 
I  found  that  the  proportion,  between  the  arable  land  and  the  mea- 
dows, was  about  thirty  acres  under  the  plough  and  seventy  acres  in 
grass.  Th^  metayer  kept  a  hundred  cows,  and  some  animals  for 
draft,  on  the  sevcnt  acres  of  meadow.  He  estimated  the  average 
return  of  each  cow  at,  two  hundred  francs,  and  thus  obtained,  from 
his  dairy,  a  gross  revenue  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  reckoned 
the  arable  crops  at  only  half  of  the  grass,  and  the  produce  of  his 
thirtv  acres  at  only  six  thousand  francs.  i  he  gross  produce  of  this 
farm  was  then  twenty-six  thousand  trancs,  or  two  hundred  and  sixty 
francs  per  acre  This  sum  is  equally  divided  between  the  proprietor 
and  the  metayer.  The  proprietor,  out  of  his  moiety,  is  to  pay  the 
taxH-  and  the  charges  of  irrigation,  and  the  metayer  deducts  the 
whole  expense  of  cultivating  the  land  from  his  share. 

You  may  judge,  from  this,  that  the  art  of  culture  is  very  easy  in 
this  part  of  Lombarly  ;  it  consists  in  taking  advantage  of  the  great 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  obtaining,  with  little  exertion,  immense 
crops  The  merit  of  this  system  is  due  to  the  inventor  of  the  exten- 
sive plans  of  irrigation,  applied  to  the  whole  country  between  the 
Tessin  and  the  A<nge. 

( >ne  can  scarcely  conceive  how  they  could  connect  together  and 
direct,  in  a  single  plan,  so  extensive  a  net-work  of  canals;  for  it  is 
obvious,  that  each  separate  part  had  relation  to  the  whole,  that  the 
flowing  and  distribution  of  the  water  might  be  every  where  adaptecj 
to  the  form  of  the  ground.  There  are  several  systems  of  canals, 
which  have  no  connection  with  each  other,  as  each  takes  its  source 
from  a  different  lake ;  from  each  of  which  proceeds  a  principal  canal, 
which  they  call  the  soveriegn :  it  is  formed  for  the  double  purpose  of 
the  interior  navigation  and  to  convey  the  water  to  each  of  the  irrigat- 
ing canals  connected  with  it  These  different  canals  belong,  some 
to  government  and  some  to  capitalists,  but  never  to  proprietors  of 
land  near  the  livers;  for  they  can  never  divide  any  part  of  the 
couise  of  a  canal.  The  owners  of  the  canal  let  to  them  the  use  of 
the  water,  at  a  certain  price,  and  in  ascertained  proportions  The 
laws  and  a  special  court  of  appeal  secure  to  the  one  the  undisputed 
poss  ssion,  and  to  the  other  the  use. 

1  he  canals  of  Lombardy  are  not  lined  with  bricks  as  those  in  Tus- 
cany. On  account  of  the  great  quantity  of  water,  they  are  formed 
of  very  large  dimensions.  Lines  of  oziers  are  planted  on  the  banks 
of  the  canal  to  keep  the  soil  firm.  Behind  these,  cuttings  of  elders 
and  willows  are  put  into  the  ground  intermixed  with  large  planta- 
tions of  poplars.  The  last  trees  must  be  planted  at  considerable  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  as  their  heads  are  not  pyramidal,  like  the 
cypress.  Their  stems,  also,  do  not  bend  as  the  indigenous  poplar  of 
France,  but  they  rise  almost  out  of  sight,  like  the  birch  tree,  and 
like  it  extend  their  large  branches.  It  is  a  long  time  since  all  these 
canals  were  formed,  and  the  plantations  have  since  had  time  to  grow 
and  become  old.    Hence  the  motion  of  the  stream  has  formed  small 


AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY.  216 

sinuosities  and  hollows,  resembling  the  natural  course  of  rivers.— 
The  wiliovvs,  planted  on  their  banks,  are  become  broken  trunks, 
covered  with  mosses,  which,  clothed  with  ivy  an!  convolvulus, 
overhang  the  surface  of  the  river.  The  poplars  raise  their  symmetri- 
cal trunks  above  these  masses  of  verdure,  like  a  colonade,  whose 
proportions,  though  unequal,  are  very  large.  This  scene,  taken  to- 
gether, is  very  striking;  individually,  it  is  pleasing  and  cheerful. 

Towards  the  west  of  Lodesan,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Tessin, 
we  quit  this  beautiful  country  of  meadow  and  shade.  Naked  plains 
open  to  the  view.  Few  habitations,  and  little  activity,  are  seen 
here.  The  verdure  is,  throughout,  alike  pale  and  discolored.— 
These  fields  are  appropriated  to  the  rich  culture  of  rice. 

In  the  slight  fall,  which  draws  the  water  of  the  lake  to  the  Po, 
are  some  low  grounds,  where  the  water  does  not  run  off  An  in- 
genious person,  they  say  he  was  a  Dutchman,  proposed  to  employ 
the  stagnate  water  of  these  low  grounds  in  the  cultivation  of  rice. 
The  experiment  succeeded,  which  is  not  often  the  case. 

The  spot  appropriated  to  this  culture  is  divided  into  a  great  num- 
ber of  canals,  lined  with  banks  of  turf.  The  water,  here,  is  per- 
fectly stagnate,  under  which  grow  water  liliies,  displaying,  at  the 
surface  the  useless  decoration  of  their  flowers.  These  canals,  form- 
ed with  great  regularity,  inclose  squares  of  two  or  three  acres,  se- 
cured on  all  sides  by  dykes.  The  sluices  admit  the  water  into  them, 
and  when  once  admitted,  it  has  no  outlet 

The  rice  grows  at  the  bottom,  some  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  plant  resembling  barley  in  the  spring;  like  it,  it 
has  a  knotty  stem,  a  small  ear,  and  a  long  beard  Not  so  high  as 
wheat,  its  straw  is  of  a  more  dry  texture,  and  of  a  paler  tint.  It 
never  bends,  or  turns  on  one  side;  and  the  wind,  in  shak/ng  it.  pro- 
duces a  rattling  and  continued  sound,  like  that  which  is  heard  among 
reeds  in  stormy  weather. 

The  culture  of  rice  is  extremely  simple.  The  water  is  let  off 
the  land  after  harvest ;  the  rice  is  then  sown  after  a  single  ploughing, 
and  without  any  other  preparation  ;  the  sluices  are  not  opened  to  in- 
undate the  land,  until  the  rice  is  a  few  inches  high.  It  grows  like  an 
aquatic  plant,  always  under  the  water.  In  this  way  it  completes  its 
growth,  and  the  sluices  are  not  opened  to  let  off  the  water  until  near 
the  period  of  it*  maturity,  to  allow  the  land  some  time  to  dry,  that 
the  harvest  men  may  go  into  the  squares  and  reap  the  crop.  They 
tie  them  into  small  sheaves,  which  lie  heaped  together  some  time  be- 
fore they,  are  threshed  The  ground  remains  dry  until  it  is  again 
ploughed  for  another  sowing  of  rice. 

This  plant  is  cultivated  three  years  successively,  on  the  same 
land  ;  no  manure  is  carried  on  during  this  time  The  water  would 
destroy  its  quality,  and  it  is  alone  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  vege- 
tation. But  after  three  following  crops,  the  soil  is  exhausted,  and 
requires  light,  air,  and  rest.  It  is  left  uncultivated,  and  the  humidity 
of  the  soil  produces  the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  plants  adapted  to 
its  situation.  It  is  manured,  and  then  only,  on  the  new  turf,  and 
for  two  years  a  most  abundant  crop  of  hay  is  obtained,  though  but 
•f  an  inferior  quality. 


276"  AGRICULTURE    IN    ITALY. 

The  rice  course  is,  thus,  five  years ;  three  of  which  are  in  rice 
und  two  in  natural  grass.  During  these  five  years  the  land  is  ma- 
nured but  once,  at  the  time  when  it  is  not  under  water. 

Could  you  suppose  there  is  a  breed  of  sheep  adapt  ed  by  nature, 
or  rather  naturalized  to  these  wet  places,  feeding  only  on  the  water 
plants  which  grow  in  the  rice  stubbles,  and  the  grass  which  covers 
the  banks.  This  breed  of  sheep  is  strong,  healthy,  and  fruitful; 
the  *\res  always  producing  two,  and  sometimes  three  lambs  at  a 
birth.  No  other  animal  could  feed  on  these  boggy  lands  without  sinking 
in  them ;  and  Providence  seems  to  have  allowed  this  peculiarity,  to 
shew  that  there  is  not  a  place  on  the  earth,  which  may  remain 
desert,  nor  a  plant  which  may  not  become  food  to  some  beings  in  the 
creation. 

The  produce  of  a  crop  of  rice  is  estimated  at  double  that  of  an 
equal  crop  of  wheat.  This  rich  revenue  is  repeated  three  successive 
years  on  the  same  land,  and  the  interval  which  is  necessary  to  give 
the  land  rest,  produces  forage.  The  rent  of  rice  grounds  is  higher, 
because  they  require  little  labour,  not  often  repeated,  nor  expensive. 
The  profit,  therefore,  has  been  such  that  the  owners  have  not  been 
willing  to  divide  it  with  a  metayer.  The  rice  grounds  are  let  at  fix- 
ed rents,  about  a  hundred  and  sixty  francs  an  acre,  and  even  at  this 
enormous  rent,  the  farmers  have  often  made  large  fortunes. 

Italy  uses  only  oxen  in  its  agriculture  ;  I  did  not  see  a  single  horse 
haimessedto  a  plough.  Oxen  have  two  incontestible  advantages  over 
horses ;  they  take  no  more  capital,  and  perform  their  work  more 
economically  than  horses,  for  they  have  not,  like  them,  any  ex- 
pense for  shoeing,  for  harness,  or  any  annual  loss  on  their  capitaL 
This  saving  is,  at  least,  one  hundred  and  twenty  francs  a  year  on 
each  pair  of  cattle ;  a  considerable  sum  in  a  country  cultivated  for 
half  of  the  produce  by  the  metayers,  who  are  always  poor,  and 
have  no  ready  money. 


AGRICULTURE   IN  INDIA.  277 


['from  Buchanan's  journey  through  the  Mysore.] 


State  of  Agriculture  in  India, 


H 


LAYING  assembled  some  of  the  most  sensible  gaudas  of  the  ash- 
la  gram  tallies,  in  the  presence  of  the  lower  officers  of  revenue,  who 
were  recommended  to  me  as  the  men  best  acquainted  with  country 
concerns,  I  examined  them,  both  at  my  tents  and  on  the  field,  concer- 
ning their  practices  in  agriculture  ;  and  the  following  is  the  result  of 
my  inquiries. 

Three  kinds  of  ground. — The  grounds  are  of  three  kinds ;  wet 
land,  or  that  watered  artificially,  and  producing  what  are  called  wet 
crops,  or  grains;  dry  field,  or  that  which  receives  no  artificial  supply 
of  water,  and  which  produces  dry  crops,  or  grains;  and  gardens. 

Soils. — The  soil  of  the  ashta  gram  is  considered  as  of  four  differ- 
ent kinds,  the  fertility  of  which  is  great  according  to  the  order  in 
which  they  are  enumerated  First,  a  very  black  soil  containing  a 
large  proportion  of  clay.  Secondly,  a  very  red  soil,  containing  also 
a  large  proportion  of  clay.  These  two  sometimes  contain  a  few 
small  pebbles,  or  loose  rounded  stones,  without  injuring  the  quality  of 
the  land.  Thirdly,  a  light  brown  coloured  soil,  with  a  large  propor? 
tion  of  sand.  This  also  may  contain  loose  nodules  of  stone  without 
injury  to  its  quality.  Fourthly,  that  consists  of  much  sand,  and  an- 
gular nodules  of  stone  so  compacted  that  the  plough  penetrates  it 
with  difficulty. 

Watered  crops. — The  articles  which  the  ashta  gram  farmers  cul- 
tivate in  wet  grounds  are  rice,  sugar-cane,  udu,  hessaru,  wulP  ellur 
and  tadaguny  Of  these  rice  is  the  one  of  by  far  the  greatest  im- 
portance. 

Two  crops, — The  farmers  of  the  ashta  gram  have  annually  two 
crops  on  their  wet  grounds ;  one  crop  grows  during  the  rainy  season, 
and  is  called  hainu,  and  also  the  male  crop,  being  supposed  to  be  the 
stronger  ;  the  other  crop  is  called  cant,  and  female,  and  grows  in  the 
dry  season.  The  grounds  are  of  course  formed  into  terraces,  quite 
level,  and  surrqunded  by  little  banks  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation. — 
The  plots  of  watered  ground,  owing  to  the  considerable  declivity  of 
the  country,  are  very  contracted,  and  irregular  in  shape  :  but  by 
means  of  small  channels  leading  from  the  grand  canals,  or  from  res- 


278 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 


ervoirs,  they  can,   at  the  pleasure  of  the  cultivator,  be  either  filled 
with  water,  or  allowed  to  be  dry 

Irrigation. — The  tanks  or  reservoirs  not  being  numerous  in  the 
ashtagram,  and  the  canals  being  completely  filled  from  the  river  in 
the  rainy  season  only,  the  hainu  crop  of  rice  is  by  far  the  most  co- 
pious. The  small  supply  of  water  in  the  dry  season  is  reserved 
chiefly  for  the  sugar-cane.  If  attention  were  paid  to  construct  res- 
ervoirs for  the  preservation  of  the  water  that  is  lost  from  the  canals 
in  the  rainy  season,  much  of  the  ground  would  annually  give  two 
crops  of  rice. 

Different  manners  of  sowing  rice. — Throughout  India  there  are 
thiee  modes  of  sowing  the  seed  of  rice,  from  whence  arise  three  kinds 
of  cultivation.  In  the  first  mode,  the  seed  is  sown  dry  on  the  fields 
that  are  to  rear  it  to  maturity  :  this  I  call  the  dry  seed  cultivation. 
In  the  second  mode,  the  seed  is  made  to  vegetate  before  it  is  sown  ; 
and  the  field,  when  fitted  to  receive  it,  is  reduced  to  a  puddle  :  this 
I  call  the  sprouted  cultivation.  In  the  third  kind  of  cultivation,  the 
seed  is  sown  very  thick  in  a  small  plot  ot  ground ;  and,  when  it  has 
shot  up  about  a  foot  high,  the  young  rice  is  transplanted  into  the 
fields  where  it  is  to  ripen:  this  I  call  the  cultivation  by  trans- 
planting. 

Different  kinds  of  rice. — I  attempted  to  ascertain,  whether  the 
different  kinds  of  cultivated  rice  ought  to  considered  as  different  spe- 
eies,  or  merely  as  varieties ;  but  I  soon  found,  that  for  a  traveller  this 
was  impracticable.  Among  the  natives,  even  with  such  as  speak  the 
same  language,  the  greatest  confusion  prevails;  for  the  same  name,  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  is  applied  to  distinct  kinds  of  rice  j 
while  in  one  village  even  the  same  kind  of  rice  acquires  two  or  more 
names,  from  a  dissimilar  season,  or  mode  of  cultivation.  Thus  in 
the  ashta  grams,  the  same  kind  of  rice,  when  raised  in  the  earn  crop, 
is  called  doda  cassery ;  which,  when  raised,  in  the  hainu  crop,  is 
called  doda  but  la  Although  I  by  no  means  presume  to  be  certain, 
yet,  from  the  dissimilitude  of  appearance,  and  from  the  difference  of 
soil,  cultivation,  and  time  of  coming  to  maturity,  required  by  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  rice  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that  the  oryza  satvm  of 
Linnaeus  actually  comprehends  several  species,  as  distinct  as  the 
different  kinds  of  bar'ey,  or  hordeum,  that  are  cultivated  in  Europe. 

Hainu  crop  of  rice. — The  hainu  cultivation  of  rice,  being  here 
the  principal  crop,  shall  engage  the  chief  part  of  our  attention. 

Selection  of  modes  of  cultivation. — The  higher  fields  are  cultiva- 
ted after  the  dry  seed  manner  of  sowing;  the  lower  grounds  are  reser- 
ved for  the  sprouted  and  transplanted  cultivations.  By  far  the  most 
common  seed  used  is  the  doda  bufta,  a  coarse  grain,  like  that  wiiicha 
in  Bengal,  is  by  the  English  called  cargo  rice. 

Dry  seed — In  the  hainu  crop,  the  following  is  the  management  of 
the  dry  seed  cultivation :  from  the  14th  of  February  till  the  23d  of 
May,  plough  twice  a  month  ;  having,  three  days  previous  to  the  first 
ploughing,  softened  the  soil  by  giving  the  field  water.  After  the 
fourth  ploughing,  the  field  must  be  manured  with  /lung,  procured 
either  from  the  city  or  cow  house.  After  the  fifth  ploughing,  the 
field  must  be  watered,  either  by  rain,  or  fr<»m  the  canal;  and  three 
days  afterwards  the  seed  must  be  sown  broad-cast,  and  then  covered 


AGRICULTURE    JN    INDIA.  21$ 

hy  the  sixth  ploughing.  Any  rain  that  happens  to  fall  for  the  first 
thirty  days  after  sowing  the  seed,  must  be  allowed  to  run  off  by  a 
breach  in  the  bank  which  surrounds  the  field  ;  and  should  much  rain 
fall  at  this  season,  the  crop  is  considerably  injured.  Should  there 
toave  been  no  rain  for  the  first  thirty  days,  the  field  must  be  kept  con- 
stantly inundated,  till  the  crop  be  ripe;  but  if  there  have  been  occa- 
sional showers,  the  inundation  should  not  commence  till  the  45th  day. 
Weeding,  and  loosening  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  the  young  plants 
with  the  hand,  and  placing  them  at  proper  distances,  where  sown  too 
close,  or  too  far  apart,  must  be  performed  three  times;  1st,  on  the 
45th  or  50th  day ;  2dly,  20  days  afterwards ;  and  3dly,  15  days  after 
the  second  weeding.  These  periods  refer  to  the  crops  that  require 
seven  months  to  ripen.  In  rice  which  ripens  in  5£  months,  the  field 
must  be  inundated  on  the  20th  day  ;  and  the  ueedings  are  on  the 
20th,  30th,  and  40th  days. 

Sprouted  seed. — In  the  hainu  crop  the  following  is  the  manner  of 
conducting  the  sprouted-seed  cultivation  The  ploughing  season 
occupies  from  the  23d  of  June  till  the  22d  of  July.  During  the  whole 
of  this  time  the  field  is  inundated,  and  is  ploughed  four  times;  while 
at  each  ploughing,  it  is  turned  over  twice  in  two  different  directions, 
which  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  This  I  shall  call  a  double 
ploughing.  About  the.  (22nd  July)  the  field  is  manured,  immediately 
gets  a  fifth  ploughing,  and  the  mud  is  smoothed  by  the  labourer's  feet. 
All  the  water,  except  one  inch  in  depth,  must  then  be  let  off,  and  the 
prepared  seed  must  be  sown  in  broad-cast.  As  it  sinks  in  the  mud, 
it  requires  no  labour  to  cover  it.  For  the  first  twenty-four  days,  the 
field  must  once  every  other  day  have  some  water,  and  must  after- 
wards, until  ripe,  be  kept  constantly  inundated  The  weedings  are 
on  the  25th,  35th,  and  50th  days.  In  order  to  prepare  the  seed,  it 
must  be  put  into  a  pot,  and  kept  for  three  days  covered  with  water 
It  is  then  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  rotten  cow-dung,  and  laid 
in  a  heap,  in  some  part  of  the  house  entirely  sheltered  from  the  wind. 
The  heap  is  well  covered  with  straw  and  mats :  and  at  the  end  of 
three  days,  the  seed,  having  shot  out  sprouts  about  an  inch  in  length., 
is  found  fit  for  sowing.  This  manner  of  cultivation  is  much  more 
troublesome  than  that  called  dry-seed :  and  the  produce  from  the 
same  extent  of  ground  is  nearly  equal ;  but  the  sprouted-seed  culti- 
vation gives  time  for  a  preceding  crop  of  pulse  on  the  same  field, 
and  saves  a  quarter  of  the  seed. 

Transplanted  rice. — Two  distinctions  are  made  in  the  manner  of 
cultivating  transplanted  rice :  the  one  called  diy-plants;  and  the  other 
called  wet-plants.     For  both  kinds  low  land  is  required. 

Dry  seedlings. — The  manner  of  raising  the  dry  seedlings,  for  the 
hainu  crop,  is  as  follows  :  labour  the  ground  at  the  same  season,  and 
in  the  same  manner,  as  for  the  dry  seed  crop.  On  the  24th  of  May, 
give  the  manure,  sow  the  seed  very  thick,  and  cover  it  with  the  plough. 
If  no  rain  fall  before  the  8th  day,  then  water  the  field,  and  again  on 
the  22d ;  but,  if  there  are  any  showers,  these  waterings  are  unne- 
cessary. From  the  45th  till  the  60th  day,  the  plants  continue  fit  to 
be  removed.  In  order  to  be  able  to  raise  them  for  transplanting,  t&e 
Held  must  be  inundated  for  five  days,  before  they  are  plucked, 


28Q  AGRICULTURE  IN  INDIA. 

The  ground  on  which  the  dry  seedlings  are  to  be  ripened,  is  plough- 
ed four  times  in  the  course  of  eight  weeks,  commencing  about  the  7th 
of  June;  but  must,  all  the  while,  be  inundated.  The  manure  is  given 
before  the  fourth  ploughing.  After  this,  the  mud  having  been 
smoothed  by  the  feet,  the  seedlings  are  transplanted  into  it,  and  from 
three  to  five  plants  are  stuck  together,  into  the  mud,  at  about  a  span 
distance  from  the  other  little  branches.  The  water  is  then  let  off  for 
a  day :  afterwards,  the  field,  till  the  grain  is  ripe,  is  kept  constantly 
inundated.  The  weedings  are  performed  on  the  20th,  35th,  and 
45th  days  after  transplanting. 

Watered  seedlings. — The  manner  of  raising  the  wet-seedlings,  for 
the  transplanted  crop  in  the  hainu  season,  is  as  follows :  from  the 
14th  February  to  14th  March  plough  the  ground  three  times  while 
it  is  dry.  On  the  24th  of  May.  inundate  the  field ;  and  in  the  course 
of  fifteen  days  plough  it  four  times.  After  the  fourth  ploughing 
smooth  the  mud  with  the  feet,  sow  the  seed  very  thick,  and  sprinkle 
dung  over  it :  then  let  off  the  water.  On  the  3d,  6th,  and  9th  days, 
water  again  ;  but  the  water  must  be  let  off,  and  not  allowed  to  stag- 
nate on  the  field.  After  the  12th  day,  inundate  until  the  seedlings 
be  fit  for  transplantation,  which  will  be  on  the  30th  day  from  sow- 
ing. 

The  cultivation  of  the  field  into  which  the  seedlings  are  transplant- 
ed, is  exactly  the  same  as  that  for  the  dry  seedlings. 

The  plot  on  which  the  seedlings  are  raised  produces  no  crop  of 
pulse  ;  but  various  kinds  of  these  grains  are  sown  in  the  fields  *that 
are  to  ripen  the  transplanted  crop,  and  are  cut  down  immediately 
before  the  ploughing  for  the  rice  commences.  The  produce  of  the 
transplanted  crop  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  dry  seed  cultivation  ; 
and  on  a  good  soil,  properly  cultivated,  twenty  times  the  seed  sown 
is  an  avarage  crop. 

Manner  of  preparing  rice  for  use  by  soaking. — There  are  two 
manners  of  making  paddy*  into  rice;  one  by  boiling  it  previously  to 
beating;  and  the  other  by  beating  alone.  The  boiling  is  also  done 
in  two  ways.  By  the  first  is  prepared  the  rice  intended  for  the  use  of 
the  rajas,  and  other  luxurious  persons.  A  pot  is  filled  with  equal  parts 
of  water  and  paddy,  which  is  allowed  to  soak  all  night,  and  in  the 
morning  is  boiled  for  half  an  hour.  The  paddy  is  then  spread  out 
in  the  shade  for  fifteen  days,  and  afterwards  dried  in  the  sun  for  two, 
hours.  It  is  then  beaten,  to  remove  the  husks.  Each  grain  is  bro- 
ken by  this  operation  into  four  or  five  pieces,  from  whence  it  is  called 
ayda  nugu  aky,  or  five  piece  rice.  When  dressed,  this  kind  of  rice 
swells  very  much.  It  is  always  prepared  in  the  families  of  the  rajas, 
and  is  never  made  for  sale.  The  operation  is  very  liable  to  fail ;  and 
in  that  case  the  rice  is  totally  lost. 

By  boiling. — Rice  prepared  by  boiling  in  the  common  manner  is 
called  cudapal  aJcy,  and  is  destined  for  the  use  of  the  sudras,  or  such 
low  persons  as  are  able  to  procure  it  Five  parts  of  paddy  are  put 
in  a  pot  with  one  part  of  water,  and  boiled  for  about  two  hours,  till 
it  is  observed  that  one  or  two  of  the  grains  have  burst.    It  is  then 

*  Paddy  means  rough  rice. 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 

spread  oat  In  the  sun  for  two  hours;  and  this  drying  is  repeated  on 
the  next  day  ;  after  which  the  paddy  is  immediately  -beaten.  Ten 
parts  of  paddy,  by  this  operation,  give  five  parts  of  rice,  of  which 
one  part  goes  to  the  person  who  prepares  it,  for  his  trouble.  Ten 
seers  of  paddy  are  therefore  equal  in  value  to  only  four  seers  of  rice. 

Without  boiling. — The  rice  used  by  the  Brahmans,  and  called 
hasky  ady,  is  never  boiled.  On  the  day  before  it  is  to  be  beaten,  the 
paddy  must  be  exposed  two  hours  to  the  sun.  If  it  were  beaten  im- 
mediately after  being  dried,  the  grain  would  break,  and  there  would  be 
a  considerable  loss.  Even  with  this  precaution,  many  of  the  grains 
break;  and,  when  these  are  separated  from  the  entire  rice  to  render 
it  saleable,  the  hasky  aky  sells  dearer  than  cudapat  aky,  in  propor- 
tion of  nine  to  eight. 

Manner  of  beating. — The  beating  is  performed  chiefly  by  women. 
They  sometimes,  for  this  purpose,  use  the  yata,  which  is  the  same 
with  the  danky  of  Bengal ;  or  a  block  of  timber  fastened  to  a  wooden 
lever,  which  is  supported  on  its  centre.  The  woman  raises  the  block 
by  pressing  with  her  foot  on  the  far  end  of  the  lever,  and  by  remov- 
ing her  foot  allows  the  block  to  fall  down  on  the  grain.  The  more 
*  .  common  way,  however,  of  beating  paddy,  is  by  means  of  a  wooden 
pestle,  which  is  generally  about  four  feet  in  length,  and  three  inches  in 
diameter,  which  is  made  of  heavy  timber,  and  shod  with  iron.  The 
grain  is  put  into  a  hole  formed  in  a  rock  or  stone.  The  pestle  is  first 
raised  with  the  one  hand,  and  then  with  the  other ;  which  is  very 
hard  labour  for  the  Hindu  women,  who  in  general  are  rather  deli- 
cately formed 

Different  crops  in  one  year. — So  far  as  I  have  observed  in  Mysore, 
ground  once  brought  into  cultivation  for  rice,  is  universally  consider- 
ed as  arrived  at  the  highest  possible  degree  of  improvement ;  and  all 
attempts  to  render  it  more  productive  by  a  succession  of  crops,  or  by 
fallow,  would  be  looked  upon  as  proofs  of  insanity.  Where  there  is 
a  supply  of  water,  the  farmers  in  general  think,  that  the  best  plan  of 
cultivation  is  to  sow  one  crop  of  rice,  immediately  after  another  has 
been  reaped ;  and  in  many  parts,  favoured  with  a  supply  of  water, 
three  crops  of  rice  are  every  year  regularly  produced.  In  the  ashta 
grams,  however,  there  is  no  such  land  ;  and  though  some  parts  each 
year  give  two  crops  of  rice,  by  far  the  greater  f)art  of  the  irrigated 
lands  have  too  small  a  supply  of  water  to  ripen  two  crops  of  rice  5 
and  the  farmer  must  content  himself  with  one  crop  of  that  valuable 
article,  and  another  of  the  same  kind  of  pulse,  or  other  dry  grain.  Even 
this  crop  is  frequently  prevented  by  some  of  the  operations  attending 
the  cultivation  of  rice,  as  I  have  had  several  times  occasion  to  men- 
tion ;  but  still  it  is  of  considerable  importance.  The  articles  of  which 
it  consists  are  udu>  hessaruy  wulV  ellu  and  tadagany. 

The  udu  is  of  two  kinds ;  chic'udu;  and  dod'udw,  or  little,  and 
large  udus. 

The  ckic'udu  seems  to  be  a  variety,  with  black  seeds,  of  the 
phaseolus  minimoo  of  Dr.  Roxburgh.  From  the  seaon  in  which  it 
ripens,  it  is  also  called  car'udu.  It  is  cultivated  as  follows:  the 
ploughing  commences  ten  days  after  the  feast  sivaratri,  which  this 
vear  happened  on  the  12th  of  February,  and  lasts  for  fifteen  days,  or 

36 


ZbZ  AGRICULTURE    IN  INDIA. 

until  the  9th  of  March  Previous  to  the  first  ploughing,  if  there  has 
not  recently  been  any  rain,  the  field  must  have  a  little  water,  and  then 
it  is  three  times  ploughed  The  seed  is  sown  immediately  before  the 
third  ploughing,  by  which  it  is  covered.  This  crop  obtains  neither 
water,  manure,  nor  weeding.  The  straw,  when  ripe',  is  pulled  up  by 
the  roots,  stacked  for  three  days,  dried  two  days  in  the  sun,  and  then 
trodden  out  by  bullocks.  The  flour,  made  into  cakes,  nud  fried  in  oil, 
is  here  a  common  article  of  diet.  It  is  also  mixed  with  rice  flour,  and 
made  into  white  cakes  called  doshy,  which  are  also  fried  in  oil,  and 
are  a  favourite  food  The  straw  is  reckoned  pernicious  to  cattle.  It 
is  thrown  on  the  dunghill,  and  serves  to  increase  the  quantity  of  ma- 
nure.     The  grain  is  always  preserved  in  the  mudy,  or  straw  bag. 

Dod'udu. — The  dod'udu,  or  great  udur  is  called  also  hain'udu.  I 
had  no  opportunity  of  examining  it  in  a  state  proper  for  ascertaining 
its  place  in  the  botanical  system;  but  I  have  no  doubt  of  its  being  the 
phaspolus  minimoo  of  Dr.  Roxburgh.  It  is  cultivated  and  managed 
exactly  like  the  other  kind ;  but  the  first  ploughing  is  on  the  8th  day 
after  the  swarna  gauri  vrata,  which  this  year  happened  on  the  23d 
of  August.  The  sowing  season  is  15  days  afterwards  ;  that  is,  about 
the  15th  of  September.  The  straw  is  equally  pernicious  to  cattle, 
but  the  grain  is  reckoned  better  than  that  of  the  chic'udu. 

Phaseolus  mungo. — The  hessaru  is  the  phaseolus  mungo  of  the*- 
botanists.  It  is  of  one  kind  only,  but  is  cultivated  both  as  a  hainu 
and  as  a  caru  crop  ;  in  both  of  which  the  manner  of  cultivation 
is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  udus.  The  straw,  being  equal- 
ly unfit  for  cattle,  is  reserved  for  manure.  The  grain  is  dressed  as 
curry. 

Dolichos  catsjang. — The  tadaguny  is  the  dolicho's  catsjang  of 
Linnaeus,  who  has  here  introduced  a  most  barbarous  appellation. 
The  green  pods,  and  ripe  grain,  are  both  made  into  curries,  as  is  usu- 
al here,  by  frying  them  in  oil  with  tamarinds,  turmeric,  onions,  capsi- 
cum, and  salt.  Horses  eat  the  grain;  but  the  straw  is  only  useful  as 
manure. 

Sesamum. — WulV  ellu  is  the  sesamum  orientate ;  and  one  kind  on- 
ly "Tscultivated  here.  The  indicum,  however,  is  to  be  met  with  in 
some  places  not  far  distant,  and  is  called  the  phulagana  ellu.  It  is 
raised  exactly  like  the  car  }udu.  cut  down  when  ripe,  and  stacked  for 
seven  days.  It  is  then  exposed  to  the  sun  for  three  days,  but  at^night 
is  collected  again  into  a  heap ;  and,  between  every  two  days  drying  in 
the  sun,  it  is  kept  a  day  in  the  heap.  By  this  process  the  capsules 
burst  of  themselves,  and  the  seed  falls  down  on  the  ground.  The 
cultivators  sell  the  greater  part  of  the  seed  to  the  oil-makers.  This 
oil  is  here  in  common  use  with  the  natives,  both  for  the  table  and  for 
unction.  The  seed  is  also  made  into  flour,  which  is  mixed  with  ja- 
gory,  and  formed  into  a  variety  of  sweet  cakes.  The  straw  is  used 
for  fuel  and  for  manure. 

Ragy,  or  the  cynsurus  corocanus,  kinds. — The  ragy,  by  Linnaeus 
is  named  cynosurus  corocanus.  The  decany  Mussulmans  call  it  ra- 
gy The  farmers  reckon  three  kinds  of  it*  which,  however,  are 
only  varieties;  the  cari,  kempu,  and  huluparia:  all  Irfc  equally 
productive ;  but  the  third,  when  nearly  ripe  is  very  apt  to  shake 


t 


AGRICULTURE  IN  INDIA. 

the  seed.  In  the  vicinity  of  Seringapatam,  it  is  not  customary  to 
keep  the  kinds  separate ;  in  the  same  field  all  the  three  are  sown 
intermixed  ;  but  in  some  places,  at  no  great  distance,  more  attention 
is  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  grain. 

Cultivation. — The  ploughing  commneces  whenever  the  first  occasi- 
onal showers  in  the  spring  have  softened  the  soil  sufficiently  to  receive 
the  plough.  From  that  period  till  the  5th  of  June,  the  field  is  plough- 
ed from  four  to  six  times,  according  as  it  may  be  found  clean  or  foul. 
The  dung  is  then  given,  and  ploughed  into  the  soil.  When  the  rains 
begin  to  be  heavy,  the  seed  is  sown  broad-cast,  and  covered  by  the 
plough.  The  field  is  then  smoothed  with  the  hallvay.  which  is  a 
harrow,  or  rather  a  large  rake  drawn  by  two  bullocks.  Then,  if 
sheep  are  to  be  had  a  flock  of  them  is  repeatedly  driven  over  the  field, 
which  is  supposed  to  enable  it  to  retain  the  moisture ;  and  for  this 
purpose  bullocks  are  used,  when  sheep  cannot  be  procured.  INext 
day,  single  furrows  are  drawn  throughout  the  field,  at  the  relative 
distance  of  six  feet.  In  these  is  dropt  the  seed  of  either  avaray  or 
(ovary,  which  are  never  cultivated  by  themselves ;  nor  is  ragy  ever 
cultivated,  without  being  mixed  with  drills  of  these  leguminous  plants. 
The  seed  of  the  avaray  or  tovary  is  covered  by  the  foot  of  the  person 
who  drops  it  in  the  furrow  Fifteen  days  afterwards,  the  cuntay^ 
or  bullock-hoe,  is  drawn  all  over  the  field  ;  which  destioys  every 
young  plant  that  it  touches,  and  brings  the  remainder  into  regular 
rows.  On  the  35th  day  the  cuntay  is  drawn  again,  at  right  angles 
to  its  former  direction.  On  the  45th  day  it  is  some  times  drawn 
again  ;  but,  when  the  two  former  ones  have  sufficiently  thinned  the 
young  corn,  this  third  hoeing  is  not  necessary.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  month,  the  weeds  should  be  removed  by  a  small  iron  instru- 
ment called  vjary.  According  to  the  quantity  of  rain,  the  ragy  ri- 
pens in  from  three  to  four  months.  The  avary  ano/  tovary  do  not 
ripen  till  the  seventh  month.  The  reason  of  sowing  these  plants 
along  with  the  ragy  seen^  to  be,  that  the  rains  frequently  fail,  and 
then  the  ragy  dies  altogether,  or  at  least  the  crop  is  very  scanty ;  but 
in  that  case  the  leguminous  plants  resist  the  drought,  and  are  ripened 
by  the  dews,  which  are  strong  in  autumn.  When  the  ragy  succeeds, 
the  leguminous  plants  are  oppressed  by  it  and  produce  only  the  small 
•return  :  but  when  the  ragy  fails,  they  spiead  wonderfully,  and  give  a 
very  !onsiderable  return. 

Use  of  ragy  in  diet. — The  crop  of  ragy  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant of  any  raised  on  dry  field,  and  supplies  all  the  lower  ranks  of  so- 
ciety with  their  common  food.  Among  them,  it  is  reckoned  the  most 
wholesome  and  invigorating  food  for  labouring  people;  and  in  every 
country,  most  fortunately,  a  similar  prejudice  appears  to  prevail,  the 
most  common  grain  being  always  reckoned  the  nourishment  most  fit 
for  the  labourer.  Habit  seems  to  be  able  to  render  every  kind  of 
grain  sufficiently  wholesome;  but  the  stomach  is  not  able,  without  in- 
convenience, to  bear  a  change.  Hence  the  labourer,  accustomed  to 
live  on  the  cheapest  grain  of  the  country  finds  it  agree  with  his  sto- 
mach; but  he  becomes  disordered  when  first  compelled  or  induced  to 
try  another  food.  He  therefore  very  naturally  concludes,  that  his 
usual  fare  is  the  most  wholesome;  while,  for  similar  reasons,  a  labour- 
er from  another  country  will  justly  reprobate  it.     My  Bengal  and 


284  AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 

Madras  servants,  who  have  been  accustomed  to  live  upon  rice,  look 
upon  the  ragy  as  execrable  food,  and,  in  fact,  would  experience  great 
inconvenience  were  they  compelled  to  live  on  it. 

Ragy  harvest. — The  ragy  is  reaped  hy  the  sickle,  and  the  straw 
is  cut  within  four  inches  of  the  ground.  For  three  days  the  handfuls 
are  left  on  the  field;  and  then,  without  being  bound  up  in  sheaves, 
are  stacked,  and  the  whole  is  well  thatched.  At  any  convenient  time 
within  three  months,  it  is  opened,  dried  two  days  in  the  sun,  and  then 
trodden  out  by  oxen.  The  seed,  having  been  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
sun,  is  preserved  in  straw  mudies.  The  remainder  is  put  into  pits 
or  hagays;  where,  if  care  has  been  taken  to  dig  the  pit  in  a  dry  soil; 
it  will  keep  in  perfect  preservation  for  ten  years. 

Manner  of  preparing  ragy  for  use. — Ragy  is  always  ground  into 
flour,  as  wanted,  by  means  of  a  handmill,  called  vicacallu.  In  this 
operation  it  loses  nothing  by  measure ;  so  that  a  candaca  of  ragy  is 
reckoned  to  contain  as  much  nourishment  as  two  candacas  of  paddy. 
The  flour  is  dressed  in  various  ways.  The  most  common  are,  a  kind 
of  pudding  called  sangutty,  and  two  kinds  of  cakes,  called  ruly  and 
dosky,  both  of  which  are  fried  in  oil. 

Straw  of  ragy. — For  all  kinds  of  cattle,  the  ragy  straw  is  here 
reckoned  superior  to  that  of  rice,  My  Madras  bullock-drivers  dispute 
the  point ;  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  wrong ;  for  the 
people  here  have  much  experience  of  both  kinds  of  straw,  while  the 
Madras  people  are  only  accustomed  to  that  of  rice,  or  at  least  have 
never  seen  the  ragy  straw  used  except  in  our  camps,  where  many 
causes  contributed  to  render  the  mortality  among  the  cattle  very 
great. 

Avaray,  or  dolichos  lablab. — The  avaray  is  probably  what  Lin- 
naeus, from  an  indecent  Chinese  word,  calls  by  the  barbarous  appel- 
lation of  dolichos  lablab.  This,  however,  is  doubtful.  Dr.  Rox- 
burgh calls  it  dolichos  spicatus.  By  the  decany  Mussulmans  it  is 
called  bullar.  When  ripe,  the  legumes  are  nearly  dry.  The  plant, 
having  been  cut,  and  for  one  day  exposed  to  the  sun,  is  beaten  with 
a  stick  to  separate  the  seed.  That  which  is  designed  for  seed  is  pre- 
served in  mudies ;  while  that  for  consumption  is  kept  in  pots,  and 
used  in  curries.  The  straw  is  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  cattle  except 
horses. 

Tovary,  cytisus  cajan. — The  tovary  is  the  cytisus  cajan  of  Lin- 
naeus. It  is  cut  when  almost  dry,  then  put  up  in  heaps ;  and  on  the 
day  after,  it  is  opened  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  grain  is  beaten  out 
with  a  stick;  and  that  intended  for  sowing  must  be  preserved  in  a 
straw  mudy.  It  is  used  in  curry.  After  the  seed  has  been  thrashed 
cattle  eat  the  husk  of  the  legume.     The  straw  is  used  for  fuel. 

Ragy  soil. — The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  these  three  articles 
is  the  black  soil,  or  eray  bumi  ;  which  yields  a  crop  ofragay  every 
year,  and  even  without  manure  will  give  a  considerable  return ;  but, 
when  it  can  be  procured,  dung  is  always  given.  After  a  crop  ofjola, 
ragy  does  not  thrive ;  but  jola  succeeds  after  a  crop  of  ragy.  The 
next  best  soil  for  ragy,  and  the  one  most  commonly  used,  is  the  cab- 
hay,  or  red  soil.  In  this  also  it  is  frequently  cultivated  without  dung; 
but  it  requites  to  be  manured  at  least  once  in  two  or  three  years.  In 
marulu  and  daray  soils,  it  every  year  requires  dung.     If  these  sorts 


AGRICULTURE  IN  INDIA.  285 

have  been  cultivated  with  horse-gram,  the  ragy  will  not  grow  in  them 
without  a  huge  quantity  of  manure.  Two  or  three  years  rest  are 
said  by  some  to  improve  the  ground  for  one  crop  of  ragy ;  after 
which  it  returns  to  its  usual  state.  But  the  advantages  of  this  fallow 
are  two  inconsiderable  to  induce  the  farmers  to  practice  it  commonly, 
and  most  of  them  are  altogether  insensible  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  this  part  of  agriculture 

Jola,  or  the  holcus  sorghum. — Jola  is  the  next  most  conside- 
rable dry  crop.  It  is  the  holcus  sorghum  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  of- 
ten sown  for  fodder;  for  when  the  crop  is  not  uncommonly  good, 
the  grain  is  no  object.  It  is  cut,  and  given  to  the  cattle  at  a  time 
when  ragy  straw  is  not  to  be  procured.  Previously  to  being  given 
to  cattle,  however,  it  must  be  dried,  as  the  green  straw  is  found  to  be 
very  pernicious.  There  are  two  kinds  of  jola ;  the  white,  and  the 
red.  When  they  are  intended  to  be  cut  for  the  grain,  these  are  sown 
separately  ;  as  the  red  kind  ripens  in  three  months,  while  four  are  re- 
quired to  ripen  the  white  jola.  In  those  parts  of  the  ashta  gram  ta- 
lucs  which  are  remote  from  the  city,  the  grain  is  generally  preserved  ; 
but  near  Seringapatam,  where  the  demand  for  fodder  is  greater,  and 
where  the  jola  is  commonly  cultivated  with  a  view  to  furnishing  that 
article,  the  two  kinds  are  often  sown  promiscuously.  A  red  ragy 
soil  is  preferred  for  it,  and  crops  of  ragy  and  jola  are  generally  taken 
alternately,  the  crop  of  ragy  having  an  extraordinary  allowance  of 
dung.  The  jola  requires  less  rain  than  the  ragy,  and  admits  of  a  se- 
cond crop  of  huruli  being  taken  after  it ;  and  thus,  in  the  course  of 
two  years,  there  are  on  the  same  ground  three  crops.  In  Phalguna 
and  Chaitra,  from  the  14th  of  February  to  the  22d  of  April,  they 
plough  from  five  to  seven  times.  If  a  crop  of  ragy  has  preceded, 
there  is  no  occasion  for  manure  to  the  jola  ;  but,  when  two  crops  of 
this  succeed  each  other,  the  last  must  get  some  dung,  which  is  put 
on  before  the  last  ploughing.  After  a  heavy  rain  in  Vaisakha,  from 
the  23d  April  to  the  23d  May,  the  seed  is  sown  broad-cast,  and  co- 
vered with  the  plough.  When  the  young  plants  have  appeared  above 
ground,  the  field  must  be  cleared  with  the  cvntay,  or  bullock-hoe ; 
and  this  operation  must  be  repeated  on  the  thirtieth  and  forty-fifth 
days.  If  it  be  intended  merely  for  fodder,  these  hoeings  are  unne- 
cessary, and  the  seed  is  sown  very  thin,  as  mentioned  in  the  list; 
but  then,  should  it  by  chance  succeed,  and  be  allowed  to  ripen,  the 
produce  will  be  very  great.  Where  it  is  intended  from  the  first  to  be 
allowed  to  ripen,  the  quantity  of  seed  sown  is  one  half  more,  or 
one  gallon  and  three  hundred  and  thirty -eight  thousandths  of  a  gallon 
for  an  acre  ;  in  which  case  80  fold  being  the  average  return,  the  pro- 
duce of  an  acre  is  the  same  as  mentioned  in  the  list,  or  15£  bushels. 
If  it  be  intended  for  fodder,  thejola  is  sown  about  the  middle  of  Chai- 
tra, or  the  9th  of  April,  and  cut  down  in  Ashada,  or  from  the  23d  of 
June  till  the  23d  of  July.  The  straw  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  ragy, 
but  is  here  reckoned  better  than  that  of  paddy. 

Chica  cambu,  or  holcus  spicatus. — The  chica  cambu  is  the  holcus 
spicatus  of  Linnaeus.  During  the  spring,  plough  six  times;  about 
the  13th  of  Jyaishta,  or  5th  of  June,  put  on  the  dung,  and  plough 
again  ;  when  the  heavy  rains  commence,  sow  broad-cast,  and  plough 
in  the  seed.     In  drills  with  the  cambu  some  people  put  avaray$ 


286  AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 

others  do  not.  On  the  tenth  day  hoe  with  the  cuntay,  once  length* 
ways,  and  once  across  the  field.  It  must  be  carefully  protected  from 
the  birds,  when  approaching  towards  ripeness,  which  happens  in 
three  months  and  a  half.  The  ears  are  first  removed,  and  then  the 
straw  is  cut  down  close  to  the  ground.  It  makes  excellent  thatch, 
and  is  also  eaten  by  cattle,  but  is  not  much  esteemed  as  fodder.  The 
ears  are  kept  in  a  heap  for  three  days,  then  trodden  out  by  oxen,  and 
cleaned  by  a  fan,  or  moram.  The  seed  intended  for  sowing,  after 
being  well  dried  in  the  sun,  is  preserved  in  mudies.  That  intended 
for  consumption,  is  kept  in  canajas,  or  store-houses,  but  cannot  be 
preserved  long.  It  is  made  into  flour  for  cakes,  and  for  sangutty, 
or  pudding.  If  sown  on  the  two  good  soils,  it  requires  no  dung;  but 
on  the  two  bad  soils  manure  is  absolutely  necessary.  Repeated 
crops  of  this  grain  do  not  exhaust  the  ground,  and  ragy  thrives  after 
it. 

Shamy,  or  panicum  miliare. — Shamy  is  the  panicum  miliare  of 
Lamarck.  It  is  never  sown  on  the  eray  or  black  clay,  and  rarely 
on  the  cabbay,  or  red  soil ;  the  two  worst  qualities  of  land  being  con- 
sidered as  sufficietly  good  for  such  a  crop.  In  the  spring  the  field  is 
ploughed  five  times.  At  the  commencement  of  the  heavy  rains  it  is 
sown  broad-cast,  and  the  seed  is  covered  by  a  ploughing.  Even  in 
the  worst  soil,  there  is  no  absolute  necessity  for  dung ;  but  when  any 
can  be  spared,  the  crop  will  doubtless  be  benefitted  by  manure.  It 
ripens  without  further  care  in  three  months,  is  cut  close  to  the  ground , 
and  gathered  into  stacks.  Five  or  six  days  afterwards  it  is  spread  on 
a  thrashing  floor,  and  the  grain  is  trampled  out  by  oxen.  That  in- 
tended for  sowing  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  tied  up  in  straw  mudies. 
The  remainder  is  preserved  in  canajas.  It  is  sometimes  boiled 
whole,  like  rice;  at  others,  ground  into  flour  for  cakes.  All  kinds 
of  cattle  eat  the  straw,  which  is  also  esteemed  the  best  for  stuffing 
pack-saddles. 

Harica,  or paspalum  frumenticum. — The  harica  is  the  paspa- 
lum  frumenticum  of  Dr.  Roxburgh.  As  it  is  found  to  injure  the  suc- 
ceeding crop  of  ragy,  it  is  never  cultivated  on  the  best  soil,  and  rare- 
ly on  that  of  the  second  quality.  It  is  commonly  followed  by  a  crop 
of  horse  gram,  and  is  seldom  allowed  any  manure.  In  the  spring 
plough  five  times.  The  dung,  if  any  be  given,  must  be  put  on  before 
the  last  ploughing.  When  the  heavy  rains  commence,  sow  broad- 
cast, and  plough  in  the  seed:  next  day  form  drills  oftovary  in  the 
same  manner  as  with  ragy.  When  the  sprouts  are  a  span  high,  hoe 
with  the  cuntay,  once  longitudinally  and  once  across  the  field.  Next 
week  weed  with  the  ujary.  It  ripens  in  six  months;  and,  having 
been  cut  down  near  the  root,  is  stacked  for  six  days.  It  is  then  trod- 
den out  by  cattle.  The  seed  reserved  for  sowing  must  be  well  dried 
in  the  sun.  The  remainder  is  preserved  in  the  canqja,  but  does  not 
keep  long.  It  is  both  boiled  like  rice,  and  made  into  flour  for  dress- 
ing as  sangutty.  or  pudding.  The  stiaw  is  eaten  by  every  kind  of 
cattle;  but,  of  all  the  fodders  used  here,  this  is  reckoned  the  worst. 

Navonay,  or  panicum  italicum. — Navonay  is  the  panicum  itali- 
cumot'  Linnaeus.  There  are  two  varieties  of  it  cultivated;  the  one 
called  ghidu,  or  short;  and  the  other  jota,  or  long,  and  doda,  or 
•reat.     Unless  a  quantity  of  dung  can  be  spared,  it  is  never  sown  on 


t 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA*  287 

the  two  worsts  soils.  On  the  two  best  soils  it  requires  no  manure, 
and  does  not  injure  the  succeeding  crop  ofragy.  In  the  spring, 
plough  six  times.  When  the  heavy  rains  commence,  sow,  and  plough 
in  the  seed  It  requires  neither  weeding  nor  hoeing,  and  ripens  in 
three  months.  Cut  it  close  to  the  ground,  and  stack  it  for  eight  days  ; 
then  spread  it  to  the  sun  for  a  day,  and  on  the  next  tread  out  the  grain 
with  oxen.  The  seed  for  sowing  must  be  well  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
preserved  in  a  mudy.  The  remainder  is  kept  in  the  canaja.  It  is 
made  into  flour  for  sangutty,  or  pudding,  and  is  also  frequently  boil- 
ed whole,  like  rice;  for  which,  according  to  my  taste,  it  is  the  best 
succedaneum  that  the  country  affords.  The  straw  is  used  for  fodder, 
but  is  not  good.  The  join  naovnay  is  sometimes  put  in  drills  with 
ragy,  in  place  of  the  avaray  or  tovary. 

Huruli,  or  dolichos  biftorus. — Huruli  is  much  cultivated.  It  is 
the  dolichos  biftorus  of  Linnaeus,  the  horse  gram  of  the  Madras  En- 
glish. There  are  two  varieties ;  the  red,  and  the  black:  but  here 
the  two  are  always  sown  intermixed.  In  the  last  half  of  Srivana, 
from  the  5th  to  the  20th  August,  plough  three  times.  Sow  broad- 
cast, with  the  first  rain  of  Bhadrapada,  which  commences  on  the  21st 
of  August.  It  requires  no  manure,  and  the  seed  is  covered  by  a 
fourth  ploughing.  In  three  months  it  ripens  without  farther  trouble, 
and  is  then  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  stacked  for  eight  days  :  after 
which  it  is  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  next  day  is  trodden  out  by 
oxen.  The  seed  for  sowing  must  be  well  dried  in  the  sun,  and  pre- 
served in  mudies :  the  remainder  is  kept  in  pots,  or  in  the  canaja. 
It  is  used  for  human  food,  either  dressed  as  curry,  or  parched  ;  but 
the  chief  consumption  of  it  is  for  cattle,  both  horses  and  bullocks. 
The  straw  is  an  excellent  fodder,  and  is  preferred  even  to  that  of  ra- 
gy.  It  is  generally  sown  on  the  two  worst  soils,  in  fields  that  are 
never  used  for  any  thing  else ;  but  it  also  follows  as  a  second  crop 
after  jola;  or,  when  from  want  of  rain  the  crop  of  ragy  has  failed, 
the  field  is  ploughed  up,  and  sown  with  horse-gram.  In  this  case, 
the  next  crop  of  ragy  will  be  very  poor,  unless  it  be  allowed  a  great 
quantity  of  manure  In  places  where  the  red  and  black  horse  grams 
are  kept  separate,  the  black  kind  is  sown  from  twelve  to  twenty  days 
later  than  the  other. 

Carlay,  or  cicer  arietinum. — Carlay  is  the  cicer  arietinum  of 
Linnaeus.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  this  grain  is  the  common 
food  given  to  horses,  and  is  very  well  fitted  to  make  them  fat  and 
sleek,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  invigorate.  In  the  peninsula  it  is  too 
^ear  to  be  given  as  food  for  horses,  and  indeed,  even  for  men,  is  con- 
idered  as  a  delicacy.  There  is  only  one  kind  of  it  that  is  commonly 
sown  as  a  second  crop,  after  jola  ;  but  it  requires  the  richest  black 
soil.  When  sown  alternately  with  ragy,  it  seems  neither  to  injure 
nor  improve  the  ground.  It  has  no  manure.  From  the  15th  of  Sra- 
vana  till  the  10th  of  Bhadrapada,  that  is,  from  the  5th  till  the  29th  of 
August,  plough  five  limes.  The  seed  is  then  placed  in  rows,  every 
way  distant  from  each  other  a  span.  Each  row  is  then  covered  by  a 
turrow  drawn  with  the  plough.  In  three  months  it  ripens  without  fur- 
ther trouble  ;  it  is  then  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  stacked  for  a  week. 
It  is  afterwards  opened  to  tfilhmn  for  five  or  six  days,  'and  then  trod*- 


2S8 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 


den  out  by  bullocks.  The  grain  intended  for  seed  must  be  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  preserved  in  a  mudy.  The  common  way  of  prepa ring  cur- 
lay  for  food  is  by  parching  it.  The  straw  is  used  for  camels  only, 
and  is  their  favourite  food. 

JIarulu,  or  Ricinus  Palma  Christi. — Harulu  is  the  ricinus  pahna 
christi  of  Linnaeus.  In  the  nshta  gram  two  varieties  of  it  are  com- 
mon ;  the  chica,  or  little  harulu,  cultivated  in  gardens ;  and  the  doda 
or  great  harulu,  that  is  cultivated  in  the  fields,  and  the  plant  of 
which  I  am  now  to  give  an  account.  In  the  spring,  plough  five 
times  before  the  8th  of  May.  With  the.first  good  rain  that  happens 
afterwads,  draw  furrows  all  over  the  field  at  a  cubit's  distance;  and 
having  put  the  seeds  into  these  at  a  similar  distance,  cover  them  by 
drawing  furrows  close  to  the  former.  When  the  plants  are  eight  in- 
ches high,  hoe  the  intervals  by  drawing  the  cuntay  first  longitudi- 
nally, and  then  transversly.  When  the  young  plants  are  a  cubit 
and  a  half  high,  give  the  intervals  a  double  ploughing.  The  plant 
requires  no  manure,  and  in  eight  months  begins  to  produce  ripe  fruit. 
A  bunch  is  known  to  be  ripe  by  one  or  two  of  the  capsules  bursting ; 
and  then  all  those  which  are  ripe  are  collected  by  breaking  them  off 
with  the  hand.  They  are  afterwards  put  into  a  heap,  or  large  bas- 
ket; and  the  bunches,  as  they  ripen,  are  collected  once  a  week,  till 
the  commencement  of  the  next  rainy  season,  when  the  plant  dies. — 
Once  in  three  weeks  or  a  month,  when  the  heap  collected  is  suffici- 
ently large,  the  capsules  are  for  three  or  four  days  spread  out  to  the 
sun,  and  then  beaten  with  a  stick  to  make  them  burst.  The  seed  is 
then  picked  out  from  the  husks,  and  either  made  by  the  famdy  into 
oil  for  domestic  use,  or  sold  to  the  oil  makers. 

Castor-oil. — The  following  is  the  process  for  making  castor-oil, 
#  which  is  used  by  the  farmers  :  the  seed  is  parched  in  pots' containing 
about  a  seer,  which  is  somewhat  more  than  a  quart  It  is  then  beat- 
en in  a  mortar,  by  which  process  balls  of  it  are  formed.  Of  these 
from  four  to  sixteen  seers  are  put  into  an  earthen  pot,  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  boiling  water,  and  boiled  for  five  hours;  during  which 
care  must  be  taken,  by  frequent  stirring,  to  prevent  the  decoction 
from  burning.  The  oil  now  floats  on  the  surface,  and  is  decanted  off' 
into  another  pot,  in  which  it  is  boiled  by  itself  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour.  It  is  then  fit  for  use,  and  by  the  last  boiling  is  prevented  from 
becoming  rancid.  After  the  oil  has  been  poured  from  the  seed,  the 
pot  is  filled  up  with  water,  which  is  again  boiled,  and  next  day  the 
decoction  is  given  to  the  buffaloes,  by  which  their  milk  is  said  to  be 
remarkably  increased.  The  boiled  seed  is  mixed  with  cow-dung, 
and  formed  into  cakes  for  fuel.  The  dry  stems  of  the  plant  are  alsoj  ^ 
used  for  the  fire.  The  oil  is  that  which  we  call  castor-oil,  and  at 
Seringapatam  is  commonly  used  for  the  lamp  It  is  internally  taken 
as  a  purgative ;  and  the  sudras,  and  lower  casts,  frequently  anoint 
their  heads  with  it,  when  they  labour .  under  any  complaint  which 
they  attribute  to  heat  in  the  system.  It  is  cultivated  on  the  two  best 
qualities  of  lana\and  on  the  better  kinds  of  morula.  When  the 
same  piece  of  ground  is  reserved  always  for  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant,  the  succeeding  crops  are  better  than  the  first ;  when  cultivated 
alternately  with  ragy,  it  seems  neithe^-lo  improve  nor  injure  the 
soil  for  that  grain. 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA.  KVV 

Hiits'  dlu,  or  ram  tila. — Hufs  ellu'  or  the  foolish-oil-plant,  is 
a  Species  hitherto  undescribed  by  botanists.  It  is  the  ram  tila  of  the 
Mussulmans.  Near  Seringapatam  it  is  most  commonly  sown  after 
join,  as  a  second  crop.  When  that  lias  been  reaped,  plough  four 
times  in  the  course  of  eight  days.  Toward  the  end  of  Sravana,  or 
about  the  middle  of  August,  after  a  good  rain,  sow  broad-cast,  and 
plough  in  the  seed.  It  requires  neither  manure  nor  weeding,  and  ri- 
pens in  three  months.  It  is  cut  near  the  root,  and  stacked  for  eight 
days.  Then,  having  been  for  two  or  three  days  exposed  to  the  sun, 
die  seed  is  beaten  out  with  a  stick,  and  separated  from  fragments  of 
the  plant  by  a  fan.  The  seed  is  kept  in  pots.  Part  of  it  is  parched, 
and  made  into  sweet -meats  with  jagory;  but  the  greater  part  is  sold 
to  the  oil-maker  for  expression.  This  oil  is  used  in  cookery,  but  is 
reckoned  inferior  to  that  of  sesamum.  The  sterns  are  a  favourite 
food  of  the  camel ;  but  are  disliked  by  the  bullock,  though  want  often 
forces  this  animal  to  eat  them.  When  not  used  as  a  second  crop  af- 
ter jola,  it  is  always  sown  on  the  two  poorer  soils. 

Indian  hemp,  goni,  or  crotalaria  juncea. — At  Bangalore,  as  well 
as  in  all  the  neighbouring  country,  Goni  is  a  considerable  article  of 
manufacture.  It  is  a  coarse,  but  very  strong  sack-cloth,  from  18  to  22 
cubits  in  length,  and  from  half  to  quarter  of  a  cubit  broad ;  and  is  made 
from  the  janupa,  or  crotalaria  juncea.  It  is  divided  into  three 
kinds,  which  differ  in  value  according  to  their  strength,  and  to  the 
closeness  to  the  fabric.  The  same  people,  who  are  a  particular  cast 
of  men,  cultivate  the  plant,  and  carry  on  the  manufacture,  until  the 
goni  be  fit  for  sale ;  the  price  of  the  hemp  cannot  therefore  be  ascer- 
tained, as  it  is  not  sold  in  that  state.  T4ie  goni-maker  hires  from 
some  farmer  as  much  high  ground  as  he  thinks  will  raise  a  quantity 
of  janupa  sufficient  to  employ  his  family  to  manufacture  in  one  year. 
The  soil  ought  to  be  red  or  black,  like  the  best  kinds  used  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  ragy.  It  is  allowed  no  manure ;  and  the  seed  is  sown 
broad-cast  on  the  ground,  without  any  previous  cultivation,  at  the 
season  when  the  rains  become  what  the  natives  call  male,  that  is  to 
say,  when  they  become  heavy.  After  being  sown,  the  field  is  plough- 
ed twice,  once  lengthwise,  and  once  across ;  but  receives  no  farther 
cultivation.  At  other  times  the  janupa  is  cultivated  on  rice-ground 
in  dry  season;  but  it  must  then  be  watered  from  a  canal,  or  reservoir. 
It  requires  four  months  to  ripen,  which  is  known  by  the  seeds  having 
come  to  full  maturity.  After  being  cut  down,  it  is  spread  out  to  the 
sun,  and  dried.  The  seed  is  then  beaten  out  by  striking  the  pods 
with  a  stick.  After  this,  the  stems  are  tied  up  in  large  bundles,  about 
two  fathoms  in  circumference,  and  are  preserved  in  stacks,  or  under 
sheds.  The  bundles  are  taken  out  as  wanted,  and  put  in  the  water, 
at  which  time  their  bands  are  cut,  and  the  stems  being  opened  out, 
are  kept  down  to  the  bottom  by  stones  or  mud.  According  to  cir- 
cumstances, they  require  to  be  kept  in  the  water  from  six  to  eight 
days.  They  are  known  to  be  ready,  when  the  bark  separates  easily 
from  the  pith.  It  is  then  taken  out  of  the  water,  and  a  man 
taking  it  up  by  handfuls,  beat  them  on  the  ground,  and  occasionally 
washes  them  until  they  be  clean ;  and  at  the  same  time  picks  oui  wsth 
his  hand  the  remainder  of  the  pith,  until  nothing  except  the  bark  be, 

37 


290  AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 

left.  This  is  then  dried,  and  being  taken  up  by  handfuls,  is  beateft 
with  a  stick  to  separate  and  clean  the  fibres.  The  hemp  is  then 
complete]-  ready,  and  is  spun  into  thread  on  a  spindle,  both  Ly  the 
men  and  women.  The  men  alone  weave  it,  and  perform  this  iabour 
in  the  open  air  with  a  very  rude  loom. 

Articles  raised  on  watered  grounds. — On  the  first  division  of  the 
Watered-lands,  rice  is  the  greatest  crop;  and,  when  there  is  pleiity  of 
water,  the  same  ground  in  the  course  of  the  year  gives  two  crops, 
whi:  h,  from  the  respective  times  of  harvest,  are  called  kartika  and 
vaisakha  crops.  The  former,  provided  two  crops  are  taken,  is  the 
most  productive:  but,  if  the  kartika  be  omitted,  th;  vaisakha  gives 
a  greater  return  than  the  kartika  alone  would  have  given  ;  not,  how- 
ever, equal  to  the  produce  of  both  crops.  The  quality  of  the  grain  in 
both  crops  is  the  same  For  the  reasons  mentioned  at  volar,  the 
vaisakha  crop  although  raised  in  the  dry  season,  is  the  one  most  re- 
gularly taken.  For  this  crop  all  the  kinds  of  rice  may  be  sown;  for 
the  kartika  crop  the  bill/  sanabutta,  and  cari  chaningy,  are  never. 
Sown;  as  with  rain  they  are  apt  to  lodge.  The  soil  used  for  tripetty- 
sanabutta,  bify-ct>amugy,  cari  chaningy  and  puf-rajah,  is  marulu, 
or  sandy  The  others  require  a  clay,  which  in  the  low  grounds  is  al- 
ways black.  i  he  red  soil  is  always  confined  to  the  rising  grounds, 
and  is  therefore  never  cultivated  for  rice,  except  when  it  can  be  wa- 
tered by  machines;  and,  if  the  water  be  more  than  3l£  feet  liom  the 
surface,  these  are  never  used.  Two  men  and  four  oxen  can,  by 
means  of  the  machine  called  capily,  supply  an  acre  and  a  halt  of 
ground  with  water  sufficient  to  raise  a  crop  of  rice.  One  set  works 
four  or  five  hours  in  the  inprning;  and  the  other  as  much  in  the  eve- 
ning. In  the  day  the  men  do  little  jobs  :  but  the  cattle  do  no  other 
work.  When  this  machine  is  used,  the  government  does  not  divide 
the  crop  with  the  farmer;  but,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  labour, 
takes  a  fixed  rent  of  four  seeds,  or  else  contents  itself  with  one  quar- 
ter of  the  produce.  Sixteen  seeds  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as 
the  average  crop  of  this  country ;  but  th  n  the  seed,  it  must  be  obser- 
ved, is  sown  very  thick  Little  rice  is,  however,  watered  by  ma- 
chinery; and  the  kinds  chosen  are  those  which  require  the  shortest 
time  to  come  to  maturity. 

NadavUf  or  transplanted  crop. — The  seed,  which  is  preserved  in 
-cotays.  or  straw  bags,  is  then  put  with  its  covering  into  water, 
where  it  soaks  a  whole  night.  Next  day  it  is  kept  in  the  wet  bag, 
and  on  the  third  day  it  is  found  ready  for  sowing,  having  pushed 
forth  small  sprouts.  The  field  is  sown  on  the  third  day  after  the 
leaves  have  been  put  in,  being  covered  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  with 
water.  The  seed  is  sown  broad -cast,  and  excessively  thick,  or  at 
the  rate  of  forty -eight  candacas  of  seed  for  one  candaca  of  land. 
This  serves  to  transplant  into  thirty-two  candacas  ;  so  that  one  cari" 
data  and  a  half  of  seed  are  required  for  a  candaca  of  land,  or  two 
and  four-tenth  bushels  for  an  acre.  On  the  day  after  sowing  the 
seed  the  field  is  drained.  Every  other  day,  for  four  times,  it  is  cov- 
ered in  the  morning  with  water,  which  is  let  off  again  at  night:  after- 
wards it  is  kept  con&tantlv  inundated,  deeper  and  deeper  as  the 
plants  grow.     The  proper  time  for  transplanting  is  between  the* 


AGRICULTURE    IN    INBIA.  291 

thirtieth  and  fortieth  days  ;  bat  poor  people  are  often  compelled,  by 
want,  to  protract  the  operation  until  between  the  fortieth  and  fiftieth 
days,  which  injures  their  crops.  In  a  few  days  after  the  seed  is 
sown,  the  fields  in  which  the  seedlings  are  to  ripen  ar°  inundated  for 
three  or  four  hours  ;  then  ploughed  once;  then  inundated  f>»r  eight 
days  ;  then  ploughed  a  second  time,  having  been  previously  drained  J 
and  at  similar  intervals  they  must  get  a  third  and  fourth  ploughing^ 
with  intervening  inundations:  so  that  the  fourth  ploughing  must  be 
on  the  twenty-fourth  day.  The  field  is  then  kept  inundated  until 
the  rice  is  going  to  be  transplanted;  and.  superfluous  water  hiving 
been  let  off,  the  mud  is  then  ploughed  a  fifth  time,  and  smoothed 
with  a  plank  (/?  irtimba)  drawn  by  oxen.  The  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted into  it  in  the  course  of  that  and  the  following  day  The  seed- 
lings, after  being  plucked,  may  be  preserved  in  watei  five  days  be- 
fore they  are  planted.  After  having  been  transplanted,  they  are  al- 
lowed water,  for  the  first  time,  on  the  fifth  dav.  This  water  is  drain- 
ed  as  soon  as  the  field  has  been  filled ;  and  for  the  next  eight  days  it 
is  allowed  to  run  in  at  one  side  of  the  field,  and  out  at  another.  The 
field  is  kept  afterwards  constantly  inundated,  except  on  the  day  when 
it  is  to  be  weeded,  which  is  the  fortieth  after  it  has  been  transplanted. 
When  the  ears  are  full  and  from  their  weight  begin  to  incline,  the  wa- 
is  let  off  in  order  to  ripen  the  grain  The  rice  is  cut  down  close  by 
the  ground,  and  immediately  afterwards  is  put  up  into  stacks,  with- 
out having  been  bound  in  sheeves.  Next  day  it  is  threshed  by  stri- 
king handfuls  of  it  against  the  ground.  The  straw  is  then  exposed  to 
the  sun  for  three  days,  and  then  trodden  by  oxen,  in  order  to  procure 
the  remaining  grain.  That  intended  for  seed  is  exposed  four  or  five 
days  to  the  sun,  and  is  then  tied  carefully  up  in  bags  of  straw.  A 
plough,  with  one  man  and  four  oxen,  is  said  to  be  able  to  cultivate 
only  one  candaca  of  land ;  and  to  the  amount  of  five  candaca*  of 
rough  rice  is  required  for  extra-labour  at  seed-time  and  harvest,  and 
for  other  small  charges. 

The  cai  varapu,  or  sprouted  seed  cultivation,  is  as  follows.  In 
the  month  after  the  13th  of  July,  the  field  is  watered,  and  then 
ploughed.  Afterwards  it  has  three  other  ploughings  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  days,  and  in  the  intervals  it  is  inundated,  ft  is  then  water- 
ed for  four  days,  ploughed  a  fifth  time,  and  smoothed  with  the  plank 
drawn  by  oxen.  The  seed  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the 
other  mode  of  cultivation,  and  is  sown  broad-c  st,  at  the  rate  of  one 
candaca  to  one  candacaAnnd,  or  of  one  bushel  and  six  tenths  to 
an  acre.  For  the  first  three  days  it  has  no  vater,  after  which  once 
in  three  days,  for  four  times,  it  is  watered  an  hou  )n  the  thirtieth 
and  forty -fifth  days  the  weeds  are  removed,  the  field  having  at  both 
times  been  drained.  The  crop  is  afterwards  managed  exactly  as  in 
the  transplanted  cultivation      It  is  allowed  no  manure. 

Division  of  rice  lands.  Ubayum  — In  Velater  there  are  a  few 
spots  of  land,  watered  by  perennial  streams,  that  annually  produce 
three  crops  of  rice.  The  greater  part  of  the  vallies  give  two  crops  : 
the  first  by  means  of  the  rain  in  the  south-west  monsoon;  and  the  se- 
cond by  means  of  the  easterly  rains,  and  of  the  small  streams  which 
wind  Kojjh  the  vallies,  and  are  forced  out  upon  the  low  grounds 
by  means  of  dams.     About  the  end  of  January,  these  streams  dry  up, 


ZSZ  AGRICULTURE    IN    INDIA. 

but  the  supply  of  water  is  sufficient  to  bring  the  second  crop  to  matu- 
rity. The  lower  parts  of  the  vallies  are  called  ubvyurn  lanus;  but  the 
whole  does  not  produce  two  crops.  This  term  signifies  sperfectly 
level  ground  ;  and  in  some  places  the  water  lies  so  deep  on  it,  that 
one  crop  only  can  be  procured. 

Palealil. — The  higher  borders  of  the  vallies,  which  are  too  much 
elevated  to  receive  a  supply  of  water  from  the  rivulets,  but  which  are 
sufficiently  level  to  admit  of  being  inundated  in  the  rainy  season,  are 
called  palealil,  and  annually  produce  only  one  crop.  Mr.  Wye 
thi  ks  that  the  quantity  of  this  does  not  amount  to  more  than  a 
twentieth  part  of  the  dhanmurry,  or  rice-ground.  The  land  which 
is  higher  than  that  called  palealil  is  parum,  and  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood pays  no  land-tax. 

Different  methods  of  cultivation. — The  three  usual  modes  of  cul- 
tivating rice  are  here  in  use.  When  the  seed  is  sown  without  prepa- 
ration, the  cultivation  is  called  podiwetha,  i.  e.  dry-sowing;  when 
before  sowing,  it  is  sprouted,  it  is  called  wet-sowing,  or  cheiu-wethaj 
and  when  it  is  transplanted    it  is  called  nearra. 

Different  crops. — From  the  months  in  which  the  crops  ripen,  the 
first  is  called  canni.  and  the  second  macara.  The  first  is  the  most 
productive,  in  a  proportion  of  3  to  2;  but,  owing  to  its  being  cut  in 
the  rainy  season,  the  grain  is  often  injured. 

U  et-sowing  in  palealil. — In  the  palealil,  or  higher  parts  of  the  le- 
vel land,  the  most  common  cultivation  is  the  sprouted-seed.  When, 
however,  any  fields  of  the  ubayum  or  low-land  come  up  thin,  the 
young  rice  is  pulled  up,  and  transplanted  into  a  palealil  field ;  and 
there  still  remains  time  for  having  two  crops  on  the  former.  On  j»a- 
lealilland  the  following  kinds  of  rice  are  cultivated. 

Navara    -     a  2£  months  crop.     Average  produce  5  seeds 
Watun     -4  -  -  -  -7  or   8 

Calii        -4  -  -  -  -    7  or  8 

Caruma  3*S  -  -  -7 

Ari  modun        3  -  -  -  -    7 

Tuapunarin     4  -  -  -  -    7 

Cheru  modun    3  -  .  -  -    7 

Art  caruma      5  -  -  -  -    5 

Hill-rice. — For  the  modun,  or  hill-rice,  the^arwm  is  ploughed  three  or 
four  times  between  the  14th  of  July  and  the  13th  of  August.  After- 
wards, for  eight  times,  it  is  ploughed  once  a  month.  Between  the 
11th  of  April  and  the  11th  of  May  it  is  ploughed  four  or  five  times 
and  before  the  last  is  manured  with  ashes  and  dung.  At  the  end  of 
this  period,  the  seed  unprepared  is  sown  broad-cast,  and  covered  with 
the  plough  When  the  rice  is  about  a  foot  high  the  weeds  ought  to 
be  removed  by  the  hand ;  but  in  general  this  is  much  neglected.  In 
ninety  days  it  is  ripe.  The  ears  are  then  cut,  and  the  straw  is  imme- 
diately ploughed  down  for  sesamum. 

Chaktam,  or  wheel  for  raising  water. — On  the  way  I  examined  a 
machine,  by  which  the  natives  remove  superfluous  water  from  their 
rice-grounds,  when  there  is  no  level,  by  which  these  can  be  drained. 
It  is  '-tiled  rhacRram,  or  the  wheel.  The  arms  of  the  wheel  are  3 
feet  long,  and  14  inches  broad,  and  are  supported  in  a  case,  con- 


AGRICULTURE  IN  INDIA. 


293 


sisting  of  planks,  and  supported  by  four  feet.  That  part  of 
the  case  which  is  farthest  from  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  being 
placed  towards  the  bank  inclosing  the  field;  so  that  the  upper  part  ot 
the  segment  of  a  circle  that  lines  the  bottom  of  the  Case,  is  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  bank;  while  all  the  lower  part  of  the  case  is  im- 
mersed in  the  water ;  it  is  evident,  that  each  arm  of  the  wheel  moving 
will  force  out,  by  the  opening,  the  volume  water  contained  between  the 
lines,  and  the  segment  of  the  circle.  The  wheel  is  moved  by  six  men 
who  support  themselves  on  slight  Bamboo  stages,  and  push  the  upper 
arms  of  the  wheel  with  their  feet.  Two  sets  relieve  each  other, 
and  three  chakrams,  or  36  men,  will,  in  the  course  of  a  day,  cleat  ten 
porays  of  three  feet  of  water.  The  ten  porays  are  one  and  a  third 
acre  and  the  quantity  of  water  thrown  out  is  174,800  cubical  feet.* 


A  Table  of  the  different  varieties  of  Rice  cultivated  in  India,  and 
ike  produce  per  acre. 


\                                                                                                      |       MONTHS. 

PRODUCE. 

■Hotny  Caimbute,    -     -     -     - 

Arsina  Caimbute,    -     -     -     - 

Doda  Butta,  -    -    -    -    -    - 

Cari  Chaningy,  -     -    -     -     - 

Bili  Sanabutta,  -     -    -     -    - 

Cari  Sunabutta.      -     -     -     - 

Pishanum,     ------ 

Jeda  Mulligy,    -     -     -     -     - 

Dara  Raga  Sumbava,  -    -    - 
Gumdie  Mulligy,     -    -    -     - 

Cago  cultivated  on  lands  im-  } 
pregnattd  vrith  salt  inunda-  > 
lions,     ------      \ 

5 

44 

44 

4 

5 

54 

7 

6 

5        ' 

0 

59       bushels. 
47           do. 
44           do. 
44            do. 
55            do. 
66           do.       ' 
96           do- 
96           do. 
80           do. 
80           do. 

00           do. 

■  See  2d  vol.  of  Buchanan's  Journey,  for  the  plate. 


294  ON  THE  COMMON  POTATOE. 


[Vrom  cooper's  domestic  enclyclopedlaJ 


On  the  Common  Potatoe. 


Jl  OTATOE,  the  common,  or  salanum  tuberosum,  L.  a  valuable  root, 
originally  a  native  of  South- America,  whence  it  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  ;  and  subsequently  into  Great-Britain,  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  17th  century. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  the  potatoe,  which  are  cultivated 
both  for  culinary  purposes,  and  for  the  feeding  of  cattle 

The  common  mode  of  planting  potatoes  is,  by  setting  the  small 
Toots  entire;  or  by  cutting  the  larger  ones  to  pieces,  and  reserving 
one  eye  or  bud  to  each. 

[But  the  best  mode  upon  the  whole  appears  to  be  this:  choose  your 
potatoes  for  planting  of  a  moderate  size,  rather  large  than  small,  for 
there  is  no  good  reason  to  be  assigned  for  breeding  from  diminutive 
parents.  Cut  your  potatoes  in  to  sets,  two  eyes  to  a  set:  throw  away 
without  hesitation  into  the  hog  trough  all  the  inferior  and  diminutive 
eyes,  choosing  your  sets  from  the  middle  of  the  potatoe.  Do  not  cut 
the  potatoe  down  the  middle. 

If  your  soil  be  stiff  and  wet,  plough  it  in  ridges:  if  sandy  and  dry, 
plough  it  flat  Plough  it  deep  Plant  your  sets  in  drills  marked  out 
by  the  plough  or  the  hoe.  The  plants  should  be  dibbled  in,  six  inches 
deep,  on  long  dung,  scattered  not  sparingly,  along  the  drills :  then 
covered  with  about  4  inches  of  mould 

The  drills  should  be  in  threes]^£5^a  foot  apart:  the  plants  should 
be  8  inches  a  part,  with  an  interval,  on  each  side  of  each  set  of  three 
drills,  of  two  feet,  which  will  admit  of  horse-hoeing  between  the  sets 
of  drills,  and  of  hand  weeding  between  each  drill, 


To  have  a  good  crop,  you  must  not  spare  dung,  or  spare  labour  in 
weeding.  Some  persons  prefer  setts  of  four  or  five  drills  instead  of 
three  :  or  where  horse-hoeing  is  not  convenient,  the  intervals  ma)  be 
reduced  to  one  foot  between  each  set  of  drills  for  the  convenience  of 
hand  weeding;  but  upon  the  whole,  1  he  method  here  first  proposed 
is  us  rood  hs  any.  Forty  loads  of  dung  per  acre  will  pay  better  than, 
a  less  quantity. 


BN  THE  COMMON  POTATOE.  ^95 

If  small  potatoes  are  wanted  for  feeding,  the  sets  may  be  at  6  inches 
apart,  rind  the  rows  at  9  inches :  but  the  method  here  first  proposed, 
ad  nits  what  is  essential,  accurate  weeding,  and  suficient  air  to  circu- 
late between  the  plants. — T.  C] 

Besides  the  depredations  of  worms,  grubs,  and  various  other  in- 
sects, to  which  potatoes  are  subject  in  common  with  other  vegetables, 
there  is  a  disease  termed  the  curt,  that  peculiarly  affects  these  roots  ; 
and  for  which  ingenious  agriculturists  have  endeavoured  to  account 
by  various  conjectures.  By  some  it  is  considered  as  a  species  of 
blight,  but  it  is  more  generally  attributed  to  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing causes:  1.  Frost,  either  before,  or  after  the  sets,  &c.  have  been 
planted.  2.  The  planting  of  such  sets,  from  unripe  potatoes.  3. 
From,  not  placing  them  at  a  sufficient  depth.  4.  From  putting  them 
in  exhausted  lands.  5.  By  the  fhst  shoots  of  the  sets  having  been 
broken  off  previously  to  planting;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  semi- 
nal plant  is  incapacitated  from  sending  forth  other  shoots  sufficiently 
vigorous  to  expand  6.  To  a  white  grub,  that  preys  upon  the  roots. 
7-  To  the  propagation  of  shoots,  sets,  eyes,  &c.  constantly  from  the 
same  variety,  and  on  the  same  land,,  so  that  the  p»  tatoes  degenerate, 
and  at  length  yield  indifferent  crops.     8.  Over  dunging 

In  the  8th  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for  the  en- 
couragement ofArts,8zc.  we  meet  with  an  interesting  communication 
en  the  curl,  by  Mr.  W.  Hollins,  who  divides  the  disease  in  three 
different  stages,  viz. 

1.  The  half  curt,  in  which  the  leaves  of  the  plant  are  somewhat 
long,  and  slightly  curled :  they  produce  however,  tolerable  <rops,  if 
the  summer  be  not  too  dry  ;  otherwise  the  potatoes  will  be  small  and 
watery. 

2.  The  full  curl:  in  this  stage  the  plants  seldom  exceed  the  height 
©f  six  or  seven  inches  ;  speedily  attain  maturity,  and  decay.  'The 
potatoes  are,  in  general,  less  than  a  nutmeg ;  'of  a  dusky-red  colour; 
and  are  extremely  unwholesome  as  an  article  pf  food. 

3.  Corrupted  potatoes,  the  vegetative  power  of  which  is  almost 
destroyed,  never  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  The  seed  will  be 
found  at  Michaelmas  in  a  state  apparently  as  fresh  as  when  it  was 
first  set ;  a  few  small  potatoes,  perhaps,  growing  from  the  parent 
root. 

This  accurate  observer  attributes  the  curl,  first,  to  late  setting  h\ 
rich  soil,  succeeded  by  a  hot,  dry  summer:  in  consequence  of  which 
the  flower  falls  off ;  the  seed  is  exhausted  in  feeding  the  plant ; 
and  few  potatoes  appear.  Should  moist  weather  occur  in  au- 
tumn, the  plants,  after  being  earthed,  will  blow  a  second  time,  and 
a  plentiful  crop  of  potatoes  will  be  produced.  These  are,  in  his  opi- 
nion, pefectly  wholesome  as  food  ;  but.  being  generated  from  the 
stalk  of  the  plant  after  the  seed  has  been  exhausted,  their  vegetative 
power  is  defective,  and  the  plants  that  proceed  from  them  will  ne- 
cessarily be  curled. 

The  second  cause  of  this  disease,  Mr.  Hollins  attributes  to  the  for- 
cing of  potatoes,  by  setting  them  in  too  rich  a  soil.  H is  preventive 
method  consists  in  planting  them  early,  in  ridges  about  one  yard 
apart,  having  previously  spread  a  little  manure  in  the  trench.     They 


29tJ  ON  THE    COMMON  POTATOE 

are  to  be  set  in  a  triangular  form,  five  or  six  inches  distant,  and  co- 
vered with  soil  to  an  equal  depth :  thus  they  will  be  protected  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  incase  the  weather  be  too  dry,  while  they  re- 
main sufficiently  apart  for  receiving  the  full  benefit  of  the  air.  When 
the  plants  have  attained  the  height  of  six  or  seven  inches,  he  directs 
them  not  to  be  earthed  up,  but  to  be  occasionally  weeded.  By  this 
simple  method,  roots  will  be  formed  in  due  season,  and  grow  gradu- 
ally ;  and,  as  the  stalk  will  decay  at  the  proper  time,  the  sap  will  be 
left  in  the  potatoe,  and  become  a  seed,  possessing  a  perfect  power  of 
vegetation;  so  that  the  plants  raised  from  it  will  be  wholly  exempt 
from  the  curl. 

From  the  authorities  collected  by  the  British  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, on  the  subject  of  potatoes,  it  appears,  that  the  curl  is  very  apt 
to  appear  in  potatoes,  planted  in  ground  which  has  been  manured 
with  lime,  vmod-ashes,  or  coal-ashes ;  and  that  it  never  appears  in 
those  raised  in  mossy  land.  The  Lancashire  planters  even  send  their 
favourite  potatoes  to  the  mossy  grounds  to  recover,  after  they  have 
caught  the  distemper.  This  is  an  invaluable  fact,  [if  true,  T  C] 
for  the  owners  of  mossy  land,  of  which  the  farmers  near  Elizabeth 
town,  and  New^Brunswick,  New-Jersey,  should  profit. 

There  prevails  another  opinion  respecting  this  disease,  namely, 
that  it  is  contagious  ;  but  such  notion  has  been  ably  combated  in  the 
2d.  volume  of  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  ;  where 
it  is  observed,  that  whatever  tends  to  render  a  crop  poor  and  weakly 
is  very  apt  to  produce  the  curl :  hence,  the  disease  probably  origi- 
nates entirely,  or  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  following  causes ; 
1.  Land,  altogether  unfit  for  potatoes.  2  Imperfect  culture.  3. 
Small  roots;  or  too  small  a  proportion  of  strong  roots.  4.  Sets,  ta- 
ken from  roots  that  have  sprouted  early,  and  the  germs  of  which  have 
been  rubbed  off.  5.  Too  small,  as  well  as  too  large  a  quantity  of 
dung.  6.  Too  deep,  or  too  shallow  planting.  7.  Every  external 
impediment  that  may  injure  new  plants.  8.  Too  stiff  ground,  or 
such  as  has  been  pressed  down  too  closely  on  the  sets.  9.  An  unfa- 
vourable state  of  the  weather,  while  the  crop  is  young.  The  result 
of  the  writer's  inquiries  briefly  is,  that,  if  the  curl  be  not  a  disease, 
but  merely  an  incidental  debility,  it  may  be  prevented  by  diligent 
attention  to  all  those  circumstances ;  which,  according  to  experience, 
are  essential  to  the  cultivation  of  potatoes. 

It  is  difficult  to  decide,  amid  this  difference  of  opinion  among  prac- 
tical agriculturists;  but  as  these  roots  materially  contribute  to  the 
comfort  of  mankind,  we  have  discussed  the  object  at  some  length; 
and  shall  now  concisely  state  those  remedies  which  have  been  suc- 
cessfully adopted.  These  are,  changing  the  seed,  raising  new  kinds 
from  the  seed,  or  apple  of  the  plant ;  or  renewing  the  same  sorts 
again  from  the  same  seed.  Salt  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  preventive 
against  the  depredations  of  the  grub. 

Beside  the  curl,  potatoes  are  liable  to  two  other  disorders,  viz.  the 
scab,  which  consists  of  excescences  that  arise  in  very  dry  seasons  f 
and  the  canker,  which  is  occasioned  by  small  cavities,  that  appear  in 
wet  weather.  These  defects  have  been  conjectured  to  be  in  s  me 
measure  the  cause  of  the  curl ;  and  they  increase,  according  to  ihu 


ON   TttE   COMMON    POTATOE.  297 

length  of  time  the  potatoes  remain  in  the  earth,  after  the  roots  have 
attained  maturity. 

The  proper  time  for  digging  up  potatoes  is  in  the  dry  weather  oC 
autumn,  when  the  leaves  and  stems  begin  to  decay.  If  they  are  cul- 
tivated on  a  small  scale,  this  work  is  performed  by  means  of  a  three 
pronged  fork,  furnished  with  flat  tines  ;  but,  when  raised  in  fields, 
the  roots  are  turned  up  by  a  plough,  the  coulter  of  which  is  taken  out, 
to  prevent  them  from  being  cut.  After  those  which  appear  on  the 
surface  are  collected,  a  pair  of  drags  is  passed  over  the  whole,  in  or- 
der to  separate  and  expose  such  as  may  adhere  to  the  clods. 

In  the  report  on  the  agriculture  of  the  county  of  Hereford,  drawn 
tip  for  the  British  board  of  agriculture,  is  a  description  of  an  excellent 
implement,  invented  by  Mr.  Yeldall,  for  taking  up  potatoes,  having 
fourprongs,  or  barbs  of  iron,  with  a  fang,  in  the  form  of  a  double  mould- 
board  plough,  drawn  by  three  horses  or  four  oxen.  It  enters  the 
ground,  under  the  bed  of  potatoes,  and  throws  the  whole  to  the  sur- 
face. A  plate  may  also  be  seen  in  the  publication  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture,  on  potatoes 

The  potatoe  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  roots  for  culinary  uses: 
when  boiled,  it  forms  a  principle  article  of  food,  and  serves  partly  as 
a  substitute  for  bread.  [Mixed  with  wheaten  flour,  fermented  with 
yeast,  and  properly  baked,  it  makes  a  wholesome  and  nutritious  loaf: 
the  most  economical  method  of  preparing  these  roots,  we  have  alrea- 
dy stated. 

Potatoes  are  likewise  serviceable  in  fattening  hogs:  but,  if  the 
latter  be  designed  for  bacon  or  hams,  it  will  be  advisable  to  mix  gra- 
dually four  bushels  of  ground  peas,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  the 
boiled  roots ;  which  portion  will  it  is  affirmed  fatten  an  animal  of 
twelve  stone.  In  a  boiled  state  they  may  also  be  given  to  poultry 
with  similar  effect. 

In  a  very  interesting  paper  on  the  culture  of  potatoes,  which  is  in- 
serted in  the  l6th  volume  of  the  Trans,  of  the  Soc.  of  Arts{\79^>) 
by  Mr.  Harper,  we  find  the  following  facts  : 

"  That  when  either  beasts  or  pigs  have  been  feed  with  flour  and 
potatoes,  after  a  time,  they  will  abate  in  their  eating;  when  if  all  the 
hull  or  bran  be  taken  out  of  the  flour,  they  will  both  make  up  better 
and  in  nearly  one  half  of  the  time  that  they  would,  if  the  bran  was 
left  in. 

2.  There  is  a  great  profit  in  feeding  geese,  turkeys,  and  fowls,  of 
every  sort,  with  potatoes  and  meal  mixed;  they  will  fatten  in 
nearly  one  half  of  the  time  that  they  will  with  any  kind  of  corn, 
or  even  meal  by  itself.  The  potatoes  must  be  bruised  fine,  while 
they  are  hot,  and  the  meal  added,  when  the  mess  is  about  to  be  given 
to  them.  Potatoes  answer  for  farm-houses  equally  as  well  as  for  feed- 
ing cattle.'7 

Mr.  Bordley,  in  his  excellent  Notes  on  Husbandry,  2d  edition 
page  189  to  184,  has  incontestibly  proved  the  superiority  of  pota- 
toes, as  food  for  beasts,  over  Indian  corn,  both  in  respect  to  cheap- 
ness and  the  quality  of  nourishment  afforded  by  both  articles. 

Mr.  Somerville  says  that  the  fattening  of  hogs  by  potatoes  is  much 
hastened,  bv  mixing  a  small  quantity  of  anv  astringent  substance 

3§ 


2^8  ON  THE  COMMON  POTATOE. 

among  the  potatoes,  especially  if  they  shew  the  least  tendency 
to  purging.  A  little  alum,  or  Armenian  bole,  may  be  used. — He- 
port  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  on  potatoes,  page  143  ? 

From  the  experience  of  Mr.  Bartley  (secretary  to  the  Baik  Agri- 
cultural Society)  which  he  has  detailed  in  a  late  pamphlet,  it  ap- 
pears that  sheep  are  very  fond  of  potaioes,  and  that  they  thrive 
rapidly  upon  them.  Boiling  certainly  increases  their  nutritious 
quality :  this  advantage  may  be  easily  obtained,  and  at  a  cheap  rate, 
by  employing  the  boiler  of  Mr.  T.  Kirk,  which  is  described  under 
the  head  Water,  in  Cooper's  edition  of  Domestic  Ency>  ''opedia. 

[To  boil  potatoes  for  cattle,  wash  your  potatoes  quite  free  from 
dirt,  with  a  birch  broom  at  the  pump  trough  ;  fill  a  hogshead  with 
them  ;  let  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead  be  pierced  with  auger  holes  ; 
the  top  put  on  loosely,  as  a  loose  cover.  Prepare  an  iron  boiler, 
of  diameter  equal  to  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead  ;  set  it,  with  a  fire- 
place, underneath,  and  a  chimney  on  one  side,  the  top  of  the  boil- 
er even  with  the  ground  ;  enclose  it  with  an  oak  rim,  about  an  inch, 
higher  than  the  rim  of  the  boiler.  Fill  the  boiler  with  water ;  make 
a  fire  under  it :  fix  the  hogshead  within  the  oak  rim  over  the  boiler, 
the  lv  ttom  over  the  water.  Boil  the  water ;  the  steam  will  percolate 
through  the  potatoes,  and  dress  them.  When  sufficiently  steamed, 
roll  off  that  hogshead,  and  roll  on  another. 

I  have  seen  this  in  operation,  at  a  large  dairy-farm  of  120  cows, 
near  Liverpool,  with  great  satisfaction.  The  cows  were  fed  with, 
boiled  [steamed]  potatoes  and  a  little  salt,  in  winter,  and  with  chico- 
ry (succory,  chicorium  intubus,  wild  endive,)  cut  four  times  in  the 
season,  during  summer. — T.  C] 

A  kind  of  whiskey  is  distilled  from  these  roots,  which  might  be 
made  very  profitable.  A  fine  size  may  be  prepared  from  potatoes, 
which  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of  that  in  common  use.  particu- 
larly for  whitening  ceilings  and  walls  With  this  intention,  any 
quantity  of  newly  made  potatoe-starch  should  be  boiled  into  a  paste , 
a  sufficient  portion  of  which  ought  to  be  mixed  with  the  whiting,  af- 
ter the  latter  has  been  diluted  with  water.  The  coat  thus  prepared 
is  much  clearer,  retains  its  whiteness  longer,  and  is  less  liable  to 
crack  or  scale  than  such  as  is  mixed  with  animal  glue.  There  is  an- 
other economical  way  of  employing  the  water  expressed  from  pota- 
toes, in  the  processes  of  making  starch  or  size.  This  liquor  is  use- 
ful for  washing  linen,  whether  plain  or  coloured,  silk  hankerchiefs, 
stockings,  &c.  without  the  aid  of  any  ley  or  soap:  it  is  said  to  im- 
prove rather  than  to  diminsh  the  tint,  while  it  restotes  their  original 
brightness,  and  imparts  a  degree  of  stiffness  to  silk  stuffs,  which 
cannot  be  obtained  by  the  common  method  of  cleaning  them  It 
deserves,  however,  to  be  remarked,  that  no  discoloured  or  other- 
wise damaged  roots  must  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Potatoes  being  of  such  extensive  utility,  various  expedients  have 
been  contrived,  with  a  view  to  preserve  them.  The  most  common 
method  is,  that  of  piling  them  up,  after  they  have  become  dry,  in 
heaps  resembling  the  roof  of  a  barn,  covering  them  closely  with 
straw,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  meet  in  a  point  at  the  top  j  and  then 
slightly  spreading  them  over  with  mould,  which  is  beaten  down  with 


ON  THE  COMMON  POTATOES  ^9§ 

«  spade.  Some  husbandmen  make  holes  in  the  sides  and  top  of  the 
eh  th,  in  order  that  the  air,  arising  from  the  natural  heat  of  the  roots, 
may  evaporate  ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  steam  ceases,  the  cavities  ate 
filled  up,  to  prevent  the  effects  of  frost*>r  rain  Another  mode  con- 
sists in  depositing  them  in  pits,  and  covering  them  with  dry  straw, 
or  with  the  haulm  of  the  roots ;  by  which  management,  if  their  sur- 
face be  perfectly  dry,  at  the  time  they  are  put  in,  potatoes  may  long 
be  preserved  in  a  sound  state. 

In  Pennsylvania,  potatoes  are  commonly  kept  in  a  vault,  under 
the  bank  leading  to  the  threshing  floor  of  the  barn  :  and  from  the 
equable  temperature  of  the  heat  therein,  they  are  preserved  very- 
well,  neither  freezing  nor  vegetating.  When  necessary,  the  Sussex 
county  plan,  mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture*, 
may  be  adopted.  Holes  are  dug  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  six  yards  wide, 
ten  feet  deep,  and  of  an  indeterminate  length ;  carts  from  the  field 
unload  at  top,  and  they  are  taken  out  at  the  bottom,  which  opens  to 
the  slope  of  the  hill,  where  a  wall  is  built  with  a  door.  When  full, 
a  stack  of  stubble  or  straw  is  built  over  the  hole,  wide  and  large 
enough  for  security  against  all  frosts.  In  this  manner  the  effluvia  of 
the  roots,  rising  through  the  stubble,  does  not  occassion  their  rotting 
from  heat. 

A  mode  of  keeping  potatoes,  was  lately  and  successfully  tried  by 
the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Society ;  and  which  certainly  is  less 
complex  than  that  before  described.  It  consists  simply  in  slicing 
potatoes,  without  taking  off  the  rind  or  skin,  and  afterwards  drying 
them  in  an  oven  or  kiln.  The  roots  thus  prepared  will  remain  sweet 
for  almost  any  length  ot  time  5  the  Society  sent  some  to  Jamaica  in  a 
barrel;  which  had  been  four  years  from  Britain,  and,  on  their  re- 
turn, were  found  not  10  be  in  the  least  degree  effected. 

The  propriety  of  this  method  of  preserving  potatoes,  would  seem 
to  be  confirmed,  by  the  following  communication,  taken  from  the 
London  Commercial  and  Agricultural  Magazine;  the  communication 
is  signed  "  A  West-India  sea  captain,"  and  dated  "  Liverpool, 
March  24,  1802. 

"  I  have  made  some  effort  of  late  years,  towards  improving  and 
extending  the  common  methods  of  preserving  stores  on  board  ship  : 
and  a  result  of  a  few  of  them  1  take  the  liberty  of  sending  to  you, 
for  the  use  of  your  publication,  if  esteemed  worthy  of  notice. 

"  Finding  the  potatoe  the  most  useful  of  all  vegetables,  I  have  had 
recourse  to  every  possible  means  of  preserving  it,  I  have  found  this 
root  most  effectually  preserved  by  slicing  and  gently  baking  it.  Af- 
ter this  process  it  will  keep  sweet  for  years.  And  in  this  state  it  is 
very  serviceable  to  eat  as  bread,  to  boil  for  various  purposes  or  to  be 
ground  into  flour,  which  may  be  mixed  in  wheaten  flour,  for  many 
salutary  and  profitable  uses.  I  have  a  hand  mill  on  purpose  to  grind 
these  potatoe  slices,  and  likewise  to  grind  biscuits.  I  have  always 
been  careful  in  selecting  a  dry  mealy  potatoe  for  this  use,  particularly 
that  species  distinguished  by  the  name  of  champions.  1  always  or- 
der the  peel  of  the  potatoes  to  be  scraped  off,  and  the  eyes  clearly  ta- 
ken out  (in  the  same  manner  as  every  judicious  cook  prepares  this 
root  for  the  table)  prior  to  their  being  sliced,  and  dried  or  baked ; 


300  ON  THE    COMMON  POTATOET 

and  this  will  remove  that  strong  flavour  and  smell  of  the  potato?, 
which  would  otherwise  prevail  in  the  flour.  Due  care  should,  in  this 
case,  likewise  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  dry  and  seasoned  casks  for 
the  reception  of  this  food ;  especially  if  intended  to  be  kept  for  a  long 
voyage;  and  to  ensure  a  certainty  of  continuance  of  dryness,  I  have 
generally  packed  this  preparation  in,  what  is  almost  the  driest  thing 
in  nature,  the  husks  of  oats,  or  what  is  called  meal-seeds,  which  may 
be  procured  in  abundance  in  any  of  the  northern  parts  of  England,  or 
wherever  oat-meal  is  made." 

M.  Baume  of  France,  has  invented  a  very  convenient  machine 
for  the  purpose  of  grinding  potatoes  to  make  starch,  or  to  obtain 
flour  from  them  ;  a  plate  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Repertory  of 
Arts,  or  in  the  volume  on  potatoes,  published  by  the  British  Board 
of  Agriculture.  To  those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  grinding  potatoes 
as  a  business,  the  machine  will  be  found  highly  advantageous.  For 
domestic  purposes,  a  large  grater  will  be  sufficient. 

Method  of  dressing  watery  Potatoes. — Washrthe  potatoes  clean 3 
put  them  in  a  covered  pot,  without  any  water,  on  a  slow  fire ;  the 
heat  very  soon  draws  out  sufficient  water  to  stew  them  in,  and  the 
potatoes  so  managed  are  dry  and  mealy,  though  the  same  boiled  in 
the  common  way  are  so  wet  as  to  be  scarcely  eatable.  In  Yorkshire 
(Eng.)  if  the  potatoes  are  boiled  in  water,  the  women  drain  it  off, 
when  they  are  supposed  to  be  boiled  thouroughly,  then  steam  them 
over  the  fire,  till  they  are  dry,  and  begin  to  split. 

[To  boil  Potatoes. — Put  them  in  cold  water  with  the  top  of  the 
pot  loosely  on.  Let  them  boil  gradually  in  water  that  will  just  keep 
them  covered ;  when  the  water  has  boiled,  put  on  the  cover  close^ 
and  continue  boiling  them  for  some  time  longer,  till  they  are  soft. 
Pour  off  the  water,  and  let  the  potatoes  drain  in  a  culle nder.  Then 
put  them  in  the  pot  again  without  water,  and  drive  off  the  moisture 
till  they  split.— T.  C] 

\Potatoe  Starch  — Grate  the  potatoes :  wash  them  till  the  water 
comes  off  clear,  preserving  the  white  sediment,  which  is  the  starchy 
it  keeps  longer  than  wheat  flour — T.  C] 


APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL  LETTERS. 


LETTER  XV. 


On  Cotton  Planting. 

Edisto-Island,  July  30th,  1825. 


DEAR  SIR, 


JLOUR  letter  of  the  21st  inst.  has  been  duly  receiv- 
ed, and  I  now  embrace  the  opportunity  that  my  con- 
valescence affords,  of  replying  to  the  several  queries, 
which  you  did  me  the  honor  of  submitting  to  my  con- 
sideration. 

Query  \st.  What  preparation  do  you  give  your, 
land  before  you  begin  to  plant  ? 

Answer.  If  the  land  is  new,  after  being  thoroughly 
burnt,  cleared,  and  ditched,  it  is  laid  out  into  quarter 
acres.  The  lines  on  which  the  beds  are  to  be  made, 
and  which  are  usually  five  feet  apart,  are  then  well 


OUZ  ON  COTTON  PLANTING'. 

turned  up  with  the  hoe.  The  land  is  never  listed,  but 
ridged  only.  If  the  roots  are  numerous,  it  requires 
two  able  bodied  labourers  to  do  one  task  effectually, 
and  oft-times  three  are  necessary.  In  old  lands,  broom 
grass  is  known  to  be  a  nuisance,  and  therefore,  inva- 
riably burnt.  With  regard  to  crab  grass,  I  would  re- 
mark, that  we  use  every  effort  to  bury  it  in  December, 
but  should  that  be  impracticable,  and  the  usual  period 
of  out-door  labour  has  arrived,  the  majority  of  our 
planters  incline  to  the  opinion,  that,  on  high  land,  the 
application  of  fire  is  necessary ;  but,  if  possible,  the 
hoe  should  be  forthwith  resorted  to,  with  a  view  of 
covering  the  ashes,  which,  when  fresh,  are  highly  es- 
teemed as  a  manure.  There  is  one  serious  disadvan- 
tage in  not  destroying,  at  this  season,  when  very  thick, 
this  herbaceous,  or  in  fact,  any  other  kind  of  vegetable 
matter.  Decomposition  takes  place  precisely  at  the  time, 
when  the  plant  is  peculiarly  tender,  and  in  need  of 
every  natural  and  artificial  stimulant.  As  the  grass 
rots,  the  space  which  it  occupied,  becomes  sometimes 
suddenly  narrowed  and  contracted,  thereby  creating  a 
vacuum  between  it  and  the  cotton  roots;  and,  if  great 
care  is  not  exercised  in  immediately  filling  the  void, 
b>  pushing  down  the  earth  with  the  hand,  the  plant 
withers  and  frequently  dies.  This  operation  is  tedi- 
ous, and  we  seldom  can  spare  the  labour  to  perform 
it  effectually.  Our  manures  are  strewed  above  the 
listings,  though  a  few  planters  of  experience  and  judg- 
ment prefer  placing  them  above,  when  pulverized* 

Query  °2d.     When  do  you  begin  to  plant? 

Answer.     This  depends  on  the  season,  but  generally 
about  the  25th  of  March. 

Query  3d.     Do  you  select  your  seed,  and  how  do 
you  know  the  best  seed  ? 

Answer.     We  believe  that  the  pods  first  gathered, 
yield  the  earliest  cotton,  and  produce  the  longest  and 
strongest  staple.     The  soundest  seed  is  from  the  mid 
die  ol  the  staik ;  and  the  finest  cotton  from  the  upper 


ON  COTTON  PLANTING.  305 

fruit.  The  small  and  the  large  very  black,  and  per- 
fectly clean  seed,  many  of  us  consider  inferior.  The 
best  is  the  light  black,  or  dark  brown,  with  a  little  wool 
at  the  small  end. 

Query  %>th.  What  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and 
what  preparation  before  sowing  ;  do  you  steep  ? 

Answer.  About  om  bushel  to  the  acre.  No  other 
preparation  before  sowing  than  removing  the  false  seed,] 
We  never  steep. 

Query  5th.  How  many  rows  to  the  task,  or  quarter 
acre  ? 

Answer.  If  the  land  is  poor,  about  24 — if  rich,  18"; 
averaging  in  a  field  about  21  rows. 

Query  6th.      How  many  stalks  on  the  row  ? 

Answer.  In  very  fertile  ground,  from  60  to  80 — In 
Weak  soils,  from  120  to  140  stalks. 

Query  1th.     How  many  acr<  s  to  the  hand  ? 

Answer.  We  have  hitherto  planted  4  acres  to  the 
band,  but  in  consequence  of  the  exhausted  state  of  our 
fields,  and  the  difficulty  of  assisting,  with  manure,  so 
large  a  quantity,  three  and  one  half  acres  will  proba- 
bably  be  the  maximum  cultivated  hereafter — manuring 
the  whole. 

Query  8th.     High  or  low  beds  ? 

Answer.  In  order  to  diminish  the  labour  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  to  prevent  the  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds  from 
vegetating  too  quickly,  the  beds  are  raised  high,  and 
with  full  round  sides.  Of  a  wet  season,  the  action  of 
the  sun  on  ridges  that  are  small  and  sharp  pointed, 
scalds  the  roots,  and  thus  diseases  the  plant.  In  a  pe- 
riod of  drought,  the  same  cause,  produces  an  effect* 
equally  deleterious. 

Query  9th.  How  often  do  you  hoe,  and  when  do 
you  begin  ? 

Answer.  We  seldom  or  never  hoe  oftener  than  five 
or  six  times.  After  the  first  operation,  in  which  we 
endeavour  to  preserve  the  original  size  of  the  ridge, 
the  earth  is  drawn  to  the  top  of  the  bed,  twice  in  sue- 


304  ON  COTTON  PJLANTINGi 

cession  ;  taking  care,  that  at  the  second  working,  the 
dirt  is  not  thrown  so  high  as  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  stalk.  A  little  dirt  is  unquestionably  beneficial, 
and  this  object  is  subsequently  attained,  by  scattering 
with  the  hand,  only  such  a  portion,  as  will  speedily 
become  dry.  Too  much  wet  earth,  and  the  power  of 
the  vertical  sun  on  the  tender  fibres  of  the  plant,  are 
apt  to  generate  a  scalding  heat,  which  produces  a  dis- 
ease, technically  called  sore-shins.  In  the  infancy  of 
our  crops,  the  more  frequently  they  are  worked  the  bet- 
ter, but  after  the  plant  exhibits  the  appearance  of  put- 
ting out  freely  of  fruit,  we  rarely  ever  disturb  the  bed, 
otherwise  than  when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  with  the 
hand  or  a  chop  of  the  hoe,  the  large  grass  that  may  re- 
main. We  begin  to  hoe,  and  I  would  observe,  that  at 
every  operation,  the  weeds  and  e;rass,  on  the  top  of  the 
ridge,  are  hand-picked,  about  the  25th  of  April,  and  end 
about  the  15th  of  August,  after  this  period,  it  is  a  fun- 
damental error,  and  often  times  attended  with  destruc- 
tive consequences  to  continue  your  field  labours. 

Query  IQt/i.     What  is  the  size  of  your  hoe  ? 

Answer.  10,  11  and  12  inches — Frenchay  and 
Crawley's. 

Query  11th,  Do  you  ever  plough,  and  what  kind 
or  kinds  of  plough  do  you  prefer  ? 

Answer.  It  is  but  very  recently  since  ploughs  have 
been  introduced  here,  and  from  the  lightness  of  our 
soils,  it  is  not  probable,  that  they  will  be  extensively 
used  for  cotton.  1  imagine,  however,  that  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  our  provision  crops,  they  will  soon  be  found 
to  be  invaluable. 

Query  12th.  How  many  acres  do  you  plant  in  a 
day? 

Answer.  We  seldom  exceed  three-fourths  of  an 
acre  to  the  hand  a  day. 

Query  ISth.     How  do  you  cover  your  seed  ? 

Answer.  In  rough  and  cloddy  ground,  we  cover 
with  the  hoe — in  light  land,  we  sometimes  use  the 


ON  COTTON  PLANTING.  305 

foot,  but  generally,  small  pieces  of  wood,  about  12  in- 
ches in  length,  6  inches  in  width,  and  2  inches  thick. 

Query  \&th.  Do  you  ever  top  your  cotton,  and 
when  ? 

Answer*  The  practice  of  topping  is  not  common, 
though  it  has  repeatedly  been  done,  with  decided  ad- 
vantages, between  the  15th  of  August,  and  the  15th 
of  September.  As  far  as  my  experience  extends,  the 
remark  of  Taylor,  in  his  Arator,  on  this  subject,  has 
been  proved  to  be  correct.  "  Topping,"  says  he, 
"  should  take  place  when  the  cotton  has  disclosed  as 
much  bloom,  as  it  may  have  time  to  bring  to  perfec- 
tion. Useless  bloom,  which  it  will  continue  to  throw 
out,  if  permitted,  will  impoverish  the  crop,  and  impair 
the  quality  of  the  wool."  We  are  now  engaged  in  a 
series  of  experiments,  testing  the  efficacy  of  the  Decor- 
ticator,  and  should  their  results  be  satisfactory,  which 
we  think  is  more  than  probable,  it  will' afford  me  plea- 
sure, at  some  future  period,  to  communicate  them  to 
you. 

Query  15th.     Do  you  ever  hoe  down  ? 

Answer,     Never. 

Query  16th.  When  do  you  begin  to  thin  your  cot- 
ton, and  how  often  ? 

Answer.  On  this  all  important  subject,  I  am  unable 
to  furnish  you  with  any  fixed  and  definite  principles 
on  which  to  act.  Our  method  of  thinning  depends 
entirely  on  the  health  fulness  of  the  plant,  and  the  state 
of  the  weather.  There  are,  however,  one  or  two  lead- 
ing points,  upon  w7hich  we  are  all  agreed,  and  Irom 
which  we  never  deviate.  At  the  first  hoeing,  a  little 
is  taken  out,  but  without  reference  to  any  regular  rule. 
At  the  second,  the  stalks  are  separated  about  two  or 
three  inches,  but  never  so  far,  as  not  to  allow  theui 
mutually  to  assist  each  other  by  the  shade  which  their 
leaves  afford.  After  this,  as  soon  as  the  want  of  a 
more  free  circulation  of  air  becomes  obvious,  a  j\  duc- 
^tion  of  the  number  on  a  row  is  necessary.  When  the 
39 


$06  ON  COTTON  PLANTING. 

plants  have  assumed  a  thick  external  coat,  and  the 
first  signs  of"  fructification  begin  to  evolve,  the  thin- 
nine:  is  carried  to  a  considerable  extent.  By  the  25th 
of  June,  our  labour,  in  this  respect,  is  at  an  end.  It 
a  pur  a  s  to  us,  the  general  error  i«,  that  too  many  stalks 
arc  destroyed  at  first,  and  when  they  are  strong 
and  vigorous,  too  many  are  suffered  to  remain ;  and  at 
that  interesting  age  too,  when  the  iiuobstrueted  influ- 
ence of  solar  and  atmospheric  action  is  vitally  impor- 
tant. Personal  observation  alone,  however,  can  fur- 
nish the  grand  criteria,  which  this  momentous  branch 
of  the  system  of  cotton  cultivation  imperiously  require. 
I  am  satisfied,  that  to  the  want  of  experimental  know- 
ledge, on  this  point,  is  to  be  attributed,  more  than  to 
any  other  single  cause,  the  difference  between  the  pro- 
duct of  adjoining  fields. 

Query  \lth.  When  do  you  begin  to  pick,  and  what 
do  }  on  pick  to  the  hand  ? 

Answer,  We  commence  picking  about  the  20th  of 
August,  and  when  the  cotton  is  well  blown,  we  gather 
from  50  to  70  lbs  to  the  hand.  More  could  be  har- 
vesred,  but  from  the  great  care,  which  we  deem  it  ad- 
visable to  exercise  in  this  operation,  the  above  is  a  fair 
statement. 

Query  28th.  What  is  your  mode  of  preparing,  do 
you  handle  it  much,  or  expose  it  to  the  sun  ? 

Answer.  The  first  and  most  essential  matter  is,  to 
gather  it,  as  perfectly  divested  of  dirt,  dried  leaves,  and 
yellow  particles,  as  possible.  This  is  a  sine  qua  non. 
At  an  early  hour  of  the  morning,  the  labourers,  stand- 
ing around  a  low  scaffold  (for  th;  y  are  never  permitted 
to  be  on  it)  re-examine  their  respective  sheets,  and  in 
this  employment,  they  are  generally  engaged,  from  one 
half  to  two  hours.  The  cotton  is  then  spread,  and  suf- 
fered re  remain  on  the  scaffold  about  three  hours,  or 
until  it  is  deprived  of  the  dampness,  that  is  sensible  to 
the  touch.  If  the  weather  is  very  dry,  the  cotton  is 
seldom  suaned,  for  it  is  an  obvious  error  to  rob  it,  by 


ON  COTTON  PLANTING.  $07 

undue  exposure  of  its  oleaginous  qualify.  A  few  old 
negroes  attend  to  the  duty  of  spreading,  housing  and 
in  further  cleansing  it  of  its  impurities.  When  the 
season  of  preparing  it  for  market  arrives,  a  certain 
number  of  labourers,  if  necessary,  is  detailed  for  ano- 
ther examination,  and  from  their  hands,  the  rottjon  is 
passed  to  the  whipped  from  whence  it  is  conveyed  to 
the  gin.  The  quantity  ginned  by  a  prime  negro  is  28 
pounds  nett.  With  a  view  of  preventing  the  sound 
seed  from  passing  through  the  interstices  of  the  rollers, 
oak  wood  is  exclusively  used.  This  is  esteemed  a 
preventive,  if  the  least  caution  is  observed.  In  the 
rear  or  above  the  ginners,  are  receptacles  for  the  stone 
cotton.  The  moaters  are  females,  and  their  day's  la- 
bour is  from  30  to  40  lbs.  They  >it  before  a  frame, 
the  lower  part  of  which  is  covered  with  pieces  of 
wood,  half  an  inch  i*  width,  and  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  apart.  Above  them  are  boxes  for  the  recep- 
tion of  their  cotton,  which,  when  inspected,  is  deposit- 
ed in  a  closet,  within  the  moating  room.  The  next 
day,  one  or  two  careful  negroes  re-examine,  on  a  small 
frame,  for  the  bag.  The  cotton,  thus  prepared,  is  pas- 
sed by  them  to  the  packer,  who  performs  his  duty  in 
an  apartment  attached  to  the  house.  The  cotton  is 
well  handled  before  it  is  ginned,  but  very  little  after- 
wards. 

Query  \9th.     Do}7ou  use  the  Whipper? 

Answer.     We  do,  and  consider  it  not  only  as  a  va- 
luable labour  saving  machine,  but  as  capable  of  effect-    } 
ing,  what  could  not   properly  and  advantageously  be 
performed  by  the  hand. 

Query  20th.  What  kind  of  gin  do  you  prefer,  and 
how  propelled  ;  has  the  wind  mill  succeeded  ? 

Answer  We  use  the  treadle  gin  only.  The  want 
of  another  power,  or  a  less  ted  ous  process  of  separat- 
ing the  seed  from  the  wool,  may  be  considered  a  desi- 
deratum in  the  rural  economy  of  the  cotton  growing 
States.     The  wind- mill  has  not  succeeded. 


30$  ON  COTTON  PLANTING. 

'Query  21st.     What  rotation  do  you  observer1 

Answer.  The  subject  of  a  rotation  of  crops  is  just 
h* winning  to  excite  our  attention.  I  am  satisfied  of 
the  correctness  of  the  principle  that  originally  led  to 
its  suggestion,  but,  as  yet,  no  facts  have  transpired, 
Worthy  of  communication 

Query  22d.     What  manures  do  you  prefer? 

Answer.  For  high  and  loose  sandy  soils,  salt  mud, 
green  marsh  or  rushes.  For  low  close  lands,  fresh 
cotton  seed,  pine  trash,  marsh  or  rushes,  rotted  in  a 
cow -pen.         -™ 

Query  23d.     What  quantity  of  manure  to  the  acre  ? 

Answer.  Of  salt  mud,  from  40  to  60  cart  loads — 
cotton  seed,  about  80  bushels — marsh,  &c.  from  the 
cow-pen,  from  250  to  330  bushels — green  marsh  or 
rushes,  about  6  or  8  inches  thick,  and  12  inches  in 
width. 

Query  2Ath.  How  many  cart  loads  can  be  carried 
out  in  a  day  ? 

Answer  If  the  manure  is  mud,  one  mule  cart  can 
carry  out  20  loads  a  day,  if  the  distance  does  not  ex- 
ceed 600  yards,  and  provided  a  labourer  is  engaged  in 
chopping  and  pulverizing  it  for  the  cart.  Of  the  ma- 
nures from  the  cow-pen,  a  like  quantity  can  be  con- 
veyed the  same  distance,  if  the  same  means  are  used. 

Query  25th.  Do  you  find  rice  to  succeed  on  your 
high  lands  ? 

Answer.     We  have  never  accurately  tested  the  fact. 

Query  26th.  What  do  you  call  a  good  crop  of  cot- 
ton to  the  acre,  and  to  the  hand  ? 

Answer.  160  lbs.  of  white  cotton  to  the  acre,  and 
640  lbs.  to  the  hand. 

Query  21th.  Do  you  use  lime  for  manure,  or 
ground  oyster  shells  ? 

Answer.     We  have  never  used  either. 

I  have  thus  Sir,  endeavoured  to  comply  with  your 
request,  so  far  as  my  state  of  health,  and  the  few  lei- 


ON  COTTON  PLANTING.  309 

sure  moments  I  have  had,  would  permit.  If,  at  any 
time  hereafter,  you  should  be  desirous  of  obtaining 
further  information,  touching  the  agriculture  of  this 
section  of  the  State,  I  need  not  assure  you,  that  my 
services  are  perfectly  at  your  command. 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient 

Servant, 
WHITEMARSH  B.  SEABROOK. 
William  Washington,  Esq. 

Chairman  of  the  Committee  on 

Publications,  A.  S.  S.  C. 


LETTER  XVI. 


On  Guinea  Corn. 


The  following  letter  is  from  a  most  respectable  and 
successful  Cotton  Planter,  on  the  subject  of  Guinea 
Corn,  we  regret  that  the  modesty  of  the  writer  will 
not  suffer  us  to  disclose  his  name. 

Liveersy,  July  18ih,  1825. 

"  I  Received  by  last  mail  your  letter,  requesting  in- 
formation as  to  the  culture  audi  produce  of  Guinea  Corn, 


310  ON  GUINEA  CORN. 

which  I  give  with  pleasure  as  far  as  my  little  experience 
goes.  The  culture  from  hoe  and  plou&h,  astotimt  of 
planting,  distant  e  of  the  rows  apart  and  tillage,  is  rhe 
same  as  for  Indian  corn,  a  bushel  will  plant  eight  or  ten 
acres,  scattering  the  seed  in  the  drills,  as  turnips;  and 
covering  lightly.*  It  grows  slowly  and  looks  discou- 
raging for  about  two  months  or  till  knee  high,  and  then 
it  grows  surprisingly  fast  and  is  very  hardy  when  a- 
bout  six  inches  high  I  chopped  it  across  with  the  hoe, 
leaving  two  stalks  together  10  or  12  inches  apart  from 
the  next  two.  It  received  no  other  work  from  the  hoe 
till  laying  by,  and  that  done  in  the  manner  for  Indian- 
corn.  I  observed  it  to  fire  a  little  on  the  poorest  spots 
last  year,  so  that  it  might  be  prudent  to  thin  to  single 
stalks  on  weak  land.  It  begins  to  show  heads  early  in 
July  and  by  the  middle  of  Augusta  part  will  be  ripe  » 
by  the  middle  of  September  the  bulk  of  the  crop  will 
be  ripe;  ir  continues  to  put  out  new  heads  and  to  ripen 
till  severe  frost.  The  earliest  corn  produces  the  most,  the 
earlier  therefore  it  is  planted  the  better.  It  is  ripe  when 
the  grain  generally  is  brown  and  hard,  and  is  gathered 
by  cutting  off  the  stem  to  the  grain  and  is  carried  out  of 
the  fields  in  baskets;  a  hand  cuts  and  carries  to  the 
wagon,  if  convenient  from  10  to  15  two  bushel  baskets  ; 
this  of  course  depends  on  the  quantity  ripe  at  a  time, 
for  at  the  first  cutting,  where  the  ripe  heads  are  tew  in 
a  place,  they  do  less.  The  gathering  is  tedious,  and  in- 
terferes with  picking  cotton.  It  must  be  spread  over  the 
bam  floor  thin,  or  kept  stirred  as  it  is  very  liable  to 
heat  till  trie  green  stem  dries.  It  is  easily  threshed  out. 
I  generally  half  thresh  it,  sending  the  ear  part  to  the 
mules  and  horses,  the  other  is  given  to  the  negroes  as 
Indian  corn,  and  in  same  quantity,  and  they  are  equal- 
ly, indeed  more  willing  to  receive  it ;  they  prepare  it  in 
several  ways,  but  generally  by  bating  it  and  boiling  it 
as  rice.     1  i^(\  my  mules  and  horses  on  it,  all  the  fall 

"*  It  is  said  to  be  very  difficult  to  set  a  Crop. 


ON    GUINEA  CORN.  •         311 

and  winter,  and  they  thrive  well;  it  is  rather  hard  for 
he  digestion  of  cattle  It  yields  an  immense  crop  of 
blades  but  leaf  is  coarse.  The  mules  however,  I  never 
observed  to  dislike  it.  I  found  it  so  ifficult  to  gather 
and  sun  in  such  a  thicket  as  the  field  presented,  that  I 
have  done  it  but  one  year,  feeling  some  doubt  too  if  it 
did  not  diminish  the  productiveness  of  the  late  shutes. 
As  to  production  1  believe  it  to  furnish  more  food  for 
man  and  beast  per  acre  than  any  other  grain,  planted 
early  in  very  rich  land  and  in  a  warm  climate  ;  and  I 
hazard  the  opinion  that  it  is  capable  of  producing  as 
near  200  bushels  as  one.  I  am  as  confident  as  I  can  be 
of  that  which  I  did  not  measure,  that  my  crop  in  1823 
exceeded  100  bushels  for  every  acre  planted.  One  seed 
puts  out  a  main  stem  and  several  others,  each  stem 
bears  a  large  ear  and  at  each  leaf  in  the  main  stem  a 
shute  puts  out  which  bears  an  ear.  I  have  counted 
28  heads  or  ears  from  one  grain,  and  they  must  have 
beenequal  tosixears  of  Indian  Corn.  The  stalk  has 
much  of  the  sacharine  juice  of  the  cane  in  it,  and  is  fine 
food  for  cattle,  throughout  the  winter,  where  cut  as  fod- 
der. I  haVe  planted  only  one  kind  of  land  which  is  a 
rich  alluvial  isinglass  river  bottom,  lying  so  low  as  to  be 
effected  by  almost  every  swell  in  the  river,  though  natu- 
rally a  dry  soil.  It  will  not  be  injuired  by  an  overflow- 
ing that  would  kill  Indian  corn.  I  believe  I  have  said 
more  than  may  be  necessary  on  the  subject.  I  have  a 
fine  field  of  8  acres  and  if  not  destroyed  by  the  fresh  I 
will  try  and  ascertain  the  produce  of  an  acre  and  in- 
form you  of  it. 

It  is  heavier  than  any  other  grain,  exceeding  the  best 
wheat  by  ten  pounds  in  the  bushel,  and  the  superfine 
flour  made  from  it  may  be  used  for  most  of  the  purpo- 
ses to  which  wheat  flour  is  applied.  I  am  unacquainted 
with  its  productiveness  on  poor  land. 


312  ON    LIME. 


LETTER  XVII. 


O71  Lime. 


Letter  to  John  Hume,  Esq.  President  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Society,  on  the  application  of  Lime  to  Marsh 
Land,  and  an  experiment  on  the  culture  of  the 
Sweet  Potatoe  :  by  John  Middleton,  Esq. 

Charleston,  February  21st,  1825. 
SIR, 

IN  some  of  my  marsh  rice-fields,  there  are  spots  of 
ground  so  impregnated  with  salt  Or  alum,  as  not  to 
produce  any  thing.  The  last  spring  I  applied  lime,  at 
the  rate  of  100|bushels  the  acre,  to  some  of  the  parts  af- 
fected, and  made  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  barrels 
to  the  acre;  the  other  part  of  the  field  yielded  three 
barrels  more. 

The  spots  where  no  lime  was  used,  yielded  nothing 
as  usual.  The  rice  would  germinate  and  die.  In 
some  cases  it  would  come  up  and  then  die,  either  du- 
ring or  after  the  point  flow,  In  others,  it  would  live  in 
an  unhealthy  state,  until  the  long  flow.  There  are 
some  spots  that  will  not  produce  any  thing. 

I  have  limed  one  spot,  and  will  communicate  the 
.  result  at  a  future  period. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

JOHN  MIDDLETON. 


<|N  POTATOES.. 


BETTER  XVIII. 


On  Potatoes. 

Charleston,  February  21st,  1825. 
SIR, 

IN  April  last  I  planted  eighteen  alternate  rows  of 
Potatoes,  with  whole  and  cut  seed. 

The  nine  rows  of  the  whole  seed  produced  fourteen 
bushels  of  large  and  three  of  small  Potatoes.  The 
cut  produced  eight  bushels  of  large  and  four  of  small. 
Thus  the  product  of  the  whole  seed  exceeded  that  of 
the  cut  by  five  bushels. 

At  the  same  time,  by  request  of  Mr.  Allston,  I 
planted  the  same  number  of  contiguous  rows,  with  seed 
sent  by  him  from  Mrs.  Horry's  plantation. 

The  whole  seed  yielded  four  bushels  of  large  and 
two  of  small  Potatoes;  the  cut  two  bushels  of  each— 
in  favour  of  the  whole  seed,  two  bushels. 

The  eighteen  rows  planted  with  seed  grown  by  my- 
self, produced  nineteen  bushels  more  than  those  that 
were  sown  with  the  seed  sent  by  Mr.  Allston. 

This  experiment  certainly  proves  the  superiority  of 
the  whole  over  the  cut,  and  the  necessity  of  a  selection 
af  seed. 

Your  obedient  servant. 

JOHN  MIDDLETON. 


41 


514  <  t>N   RICE; 


LETTER  XIX. 


On  Rice. 

"  Richmond,  (St.  John's  Berkley)  Aug.  4th,  1825. 

Dear  Sir, 

AS  many  of  the  queries  contained  in  your  last 
letter  have  already  been  fully  answered,  I  shall  confine 
myself  to  such  as  appear  most  important,  and  answer, 
as  correctly  and  as  fully  as  the  limits  of  a  letter  will 
allow,  numbering  each  to  correspond  with  the  order 
in  your  letter. 

1st — -The  land  should  be  well  banked  and  drained, 
the  trunk  on  the  flood-gates  put  down  to  low-water 
mark,  and  perfectly  tight,  so  as  not  to  leak  water; 
for  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  full  crop  of  rice  without 
the  land  is  dry  when  you  wish  it  so. 

2nd — I  trench  shallow,   and  scatter  the  rice  in  the. 
trench,  about  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches,  in  the 
drills,  and  cover  it  lightly  with  a  batten. 

3rd — I  do  not  give  the  rice  the  point-flowing  for  it 
makes  the  stalks  very  small,  and  it  does  not  recover  it 
for  a  long  time  ;  and  I  do  not  recollect  that  I  ever  saw 
a  full  crop  of  rice  made  that  was  point-flowed  ;  for  it 
always  gets  grassy,  before  it  recovers  from  the  water, 
and  the  land  gets  dry  enough  for  the  hoe. 

4th — I  always  regulate  the  flowings  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  rice,  and  not  the  number  of  days  ;  for 
much  depends  on  the  weather,  and  the  order  the  land 


GN  RI£E. 


315 


13  in; — as  lone;  as  the  rice  thrives  and  looks  perfectly 
green,  the  water  can  be  kept  on ;  but  as  soon  as  I  find 
that  it  begins  to  eet  a  little  yellow,  and  not  improving, 
I  let  off  the  water  as  soon  as  possible,  always  observ- 
ing to  change  the  water  previous  to  letting  it  off.  This 
change  takes  place  in  the  appearance  of  the  rice  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  days  after  the  water  is  put  on. 
u  5th — T§*  most  critical  period  in  the  growth  of  rice 
is  from  the  time  the  first  water  is  let  off  and  the  form- 
ing of  the  first  joint.  The  rice  should  be  well  hoed 
once  or  twice,  as  soon  as  the  land  gets  dry  after  the 
first  long-flowing,  and  all  the  grass  pic  ked  out  care- 
fully. Upon  the  hoeing  and  picking  depends  the  good 
or  bad  product  of  the  field,  and  should  be  commenced 
on  the  last  of  May,  or  the  first  of  June,  so  as  to  have 
the  rice  clean  of  grass,  and  the  land  well  pulverised 
ten  or  fifteen  days  previous  to  its  forming  the  first  joint. 
As  soon  as  that  is  done,  I  find  that  the  rice  improves 
very  fast,  and  will  soon  begin  to  form  the  first  joint, 
when  it  will  be  fit  for  the  joint-flowing,  which  should 
be  put  on  the  same  depth  as  before.  It  the  rice  is  not 
clean  of  grass,  and  well  hoed  before  it  begins  to  form 
the  first  joint,  it  seldom  produces  a  good  crop. 

6th — I  begin  to  plant  as  early  as  possible  after  the 
loth  of  March,  and  prefer  early  planting  to  late,  and 
think  much  advantage  is  gained  by  early  planting,  in 
getting  rid  of  birds,  both  in  the  spring  and  autum,  in 
avoiding  the  gales  of  September,  and  keeping  ahead 
of  grass  throughout  the  season,  and  make  a  better 
crop  than  late  planting. 

7th — I  have  known  rice  to  make  a  crop  which  was 
planted  on  the  15th  of  June. 

8th— Rice  that  is  grassy  in  the  beginning  of  the  sea- 
son, will  recover  and  make  a  full  crop,  if  it  is  well 
cleaned  of  grass,  and  the  land  well  pulverised  with  the 
hoe  fifteen  or  twenty  days  before  it  forms  the  first 
joint. 


316 


0N  RICE. 


9th — If  rice  is  grassy  in  the  beginning  of  the  season, 
and  I  cannot  hoe  it,  I  put  on  the  water  before  the  giuss 
gets  ahead  of  the  rice,  and  keep  it  on  fifteen  or  twenty 
days.  I  have  made  a  good  crop  from  rice  that  was 
managed  in  this  way,  but  it  must  be  hoed  and  cleaned 
of  grass  before  the  joint  is  formed. 

10th — I  would  not  give  husky  lands  as  much  water 
as  clay  lands. 

11th — The  best  method  to  get  clear  of  volunteer 
rice  is  to  pick  it  with  the  hand,  before  it  shells  in  the 
field,  and  flow  the  field  as  soon  after  harvest  is  over 
as  possible,  so  as  to  sprout  the  shelled  rice  that  remains 
before  frost,  when  the  water  should  be  let  off,  and  the 
stubble  burnt  off  as  soon  as  it  gets  dry  enough,  so  that 
the  birds  may  destroy  what  remains. 

I  am,  sir9  yours  respectfully,  &c. 

JORDAN  MYRICK. 

TVS.  1  change  my  seed -rice  every  other  year. 

William  Washington,  Esq. 

Chairman  of  the  Committee  on 

Publications,  A.  S.  S.  C. 


THE  END. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  N.C.  AT  CHAPEL  HILL 


00027778263 


